CAR-T CELLS

Cardiac muscle, also known as myocardium, is a specialized type of muscle tissue found only in the heart. It's responsible for the heart's pumping action, which circulates blood throughout the body. This muscle is involuntary, meaning it contracts and relaxes without conscious control. Location: Found exclusively in the heart, specifically within the middle layer (myocardium) of the heart wall. Function: Cardiac muscle primary role is to contract and relax rhythmically, generating the force needed to pump blood. Involuntary Control: Cardiac muscle contracts and relaxes without conscious effort, controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Striated: Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is striated, meaning it has a striped appearance under a microscope due to the organized arrangement of contractile proteins. Specialized Cells: Cardiac muscle cells, called cardiomyocytes, are interconnected by specialized structures called intercalated discs. Intercalated Discs: These discs contain desmosomes, which provide strong cell-to-cell adhesion, and gap junctions, which allow for rapid electrical communication between cells. Unique Properties: Cardiac muscle has a high density of mitochondria (the cell's powerhouses), which provide the energy needed for continuous contraction. It also has specialized pacemaker cells that initiate and regulate the heart's rhythm. In essence, cardiac muscle is the essential, tireless workhorse of the heart, ensuring a continuous and efficient blood supply to the entire body. 

Car-T cells In biology, chimeric antigen receptors (CARs)—also known as chimeric immunoreceptors, chimeric T cell receptors or artificial T cell receptors—are receptor proteins that have been engineered to give T cells the new ability to target a specific antigen. The receptors are chimeric in that they combine both antigen-binding and T cell activating functions into a single receptor. CAR T cell therapy uses T cells engineered with CARs to treat cancer. T cells are modified to recognize cancer cells and destroy them. The standard approach is to harvest T cells from patients, genetically alter them, then infuse the resulting CAR T cells into patients to attack their tumors. CAR T cells can be derived either autologously from T cells in a patient's own blood or allogeneically from those of a donor. Once isolated, these T cells are genetically engineered to express a specific CAR, using a vector derived from an engineered lentivirus such as HIV (see Lentiviral vector in gene therapy). The CAR programs the T cells to target an antigen present on the tumor cell surface. For safety, CAR T cells are engineered to be specific to an antigen that is expressed on a tumor cell but not on healthy cells. After the modified T cells are infused into a patient, they act as a "living drug" against cancer cells. When they come in contact with their targeted antigen on a cell's surface, T cells bind to it and become activated, then proceed to proliferate and become cytotoxic. CAR T cells destroy cells through several mechanisms, including extensive stimulated cell proliferation, increasing the degree to which they are toxic to other living cells (cytotoxicity), and by causing the increased secretion of factors that can affect other cells such as cytokines, interleukins and growth factors. The surface of CAR T cells can bear either of two types of co-receptors, CD4 and CD8. These two cell types, called CD4+ and CD8+, respectively, have different and interacting cytotoxic effects. Therapies employing a 1-to-1 ratio of the cell types apparently provide synergistic antitumor effects.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTUO0P_Frhs
CAR T Cells: Beating Cancer with the Immune System

Chondrocyte While cartilage itself doesn't contain the mineral calcium like bone does, calcium plays a vital role in mineral absorption and development, particularly through the process of endochondral ossification. A chondrocyte is the primary cell type in cartilage, responsible for maintaining the cartilage matrix and producing the structural components of cartilage. They are found within cartilage in areas like intervertebral discs and articular cartilage, playing a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and facilitating joint movements. Chondrocytes also play a role in cartilage repair and are being actively researched for potential applications in reconstructive procedures. Chondrocytes are the sole resident cells of cartilage, a tissue that serves as a template for skeletal development in the embryo. Function: Chondrocytes synthesize and maintain the extracellular matrix (ECM) of cartilage, which is composed of collagen, proteoglycans, and other proteins. Chondrocytes play a crucial role in cartilage homeostasis by balancing ECM production and the production of cartilage-degrading enzymes. Chondrocytes also contribute to the repair of damaged cartilage. Unique Characteristics: Chondrocytes are typically found in a relatively isolated environment, with limited contact with other cells and a lack of direct blood supply. They are adapted to a low-oxygen environment, relying on diffusion from synovial fluid for nutrients. Chondrocyte-based therapies are being explored for cartilage regeneration and repair, particularly in cases of osteoarthritis or other degenerative conditions. Research is ongoing to understand how chondrocytes maintain their phenotype and how they respond to various stimuli. Minerals like zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn) are crucial for chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation, as well as the formation of type II collagen, a key component of cartilage. Elaboration: Endochondral Ossification: Cartilage serve scaffold for bone growth, a process called endochondral ossification, where bone tissue gradually replaces the cartilage. Mineral Roles: Minerals like zinc and manganese are essential for various function within the cartilage, including: Chondrocyte Proliferation and Differentiation: These minerals are involved in cell multiplication and specialization of chondrocytes (cartilage cells). Collagen Synthesis: Minerals play a role in the production of type II collagen, a major structural protein in cartilage. Mineralization: While cartilage doesn't have calcium in its matrix like bone, it does mineralize during the process of bone development minerals like zinc and manganese are important for cartilage development, especially in early stages of chondrogenesis (cartilage formation). Vitamin D also plays a crucial role in bone development, which indirectly affect cartilage development through endochondral ossification. Calcium and Phosphorous: While not directly part of the cartilage matrix like in bone, calcium and phosphorous are still essential for cartilage mineralization and overall bone health. Chondrocyte proliferation, the process where chondrocytes (cartilage cells) multiply through cell division, is a crucial part of cartilage and bone development, particularly during endochondral ossification. This process ensures continuous growth and development of the skeleton, with chondrocytes differentiating into various subtype and then eventually undergoing hypertrophy before being replaced by bone. Importance in Development: Chondrocytes play a key role in forming cartilage templates that serve as the basis for bone development through a process called endochondral ossification. Chondrocytes are responsible for the continuous elongation of epiphyseal growth plates, which are crucial for bone growth in length 2. Proliferation and Differentiation: During development, chondrocytes undergo proliferation, meaning they divide and increase in number proliferation is followed by differentiation, where chondrocytes specialize into different type, such as round, low proliferating chondrocytes (RP chondrocytes) and high proliferating chondrocytes (CP chondrocytes). These CP chondrocytes further differentiate into columnar chondrocytes, which then stop proliferating and become hypertrophic chondrocytes 3. Regulation of Proliferation: Chondrocyte proliferation is tightly regulated by various signaling pathways and growth factors. Growth factors, such as insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and 1,25(OH)2D3, can stimulate chondrocyte proliferation. Signaling pathways, like the Ihh signaling pathway and the PTHrP signaling pathway, also play a role in regulating chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation.  Transcription factors, such as SOX9, GLI2/3, and RUNX2, are also involved in regulating chondrocyte-specific gene expression and proliferation 4. Proliferation in Disease: Disruption in chondrocyte proliferation too much sugar can contribute to various skeletal disorders, including those affecting growth plate development. In osteoarthritis, chondrocyte proliferation can be altered, leading to the formation of cell clusters in affected cartilage, according to a study on PMC.

Chromosomes are threadlike structures made of protein and a single molecule of DNA that serve to carry the genomic information from cell to cell. In plants and animals (including humans), chromosomes reside in the nucleus of cells. There are 16 million atoms in one chromosome ,the current version of the human genome contains almost 20,000 protein-coding genes and about 26,000 non-coding genes. It is widely agreed that there are about 20,000 protein-coding genes. The non-coding genes perform a number of cell functions. A chromosome is a package of DNA with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. In most chromosomes, the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with nucleosome-forming packaging proteins; in eukaryotic cells the most important of these proteins are the histones. These proteins, aided by chaperone proteins, bind to and condense the DNA molecule to maintain its integrity. These chromosomes display a complex three-dimensional structure, which plays a significant role in transcriptional regulation. Chromosomes are normally visible under a light microscope only during the metaphase of cell division (where all chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell in their condensed form). Before this happens, each chromosome is duplicated (S phase), and both copies are joined by a centromere, resulting either in an X-shaped structure (pictured above), if the centromere is located equatorially, or a two-arm structure, if the centromere is located distally. The joined copies are now called sister chromatids. During metaphase, the X-shaped structure is called a metaphase chromosome, which is highly condensed and thus easiest to distinguish and study. In animal cells, chromosomes reach their highest compaction level in anaphase during chromosome segregation. Chromosomal recombination during meiosis and subsequent sexual reproduction play a significant role in genetic diversity. If these structures are manipulated incorrectly, through processes known as chromosomal instability and translocation, the cell may undergo mitotic catastrophe. Usually, this will make the cell initiate apoptosis leading to its own death, but sometimes mutations in the cell hamper this process and thus cause progression of cancer. Some use the term chromosome in a wider sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin in cells, either visible or not under light microscopy. Others use the concept in a narrower sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin during cell division, visible under light microscopy due to high condensation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BcTsXhjcmPw
DNA Science - Human Race and Genetics Documentary

Circulatory System In vertebrates, the circulatory system is a system of organs that includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood which is circulated throughout the body. It includes the cardiovascular system, or vascular system, that consists of the heart and blood vessels (from Greek kardia meaning heart, and Latin vascula meaning vessels). The circulatory system has two divisions, a systemic circulation or circuit, and a pulmonary circulation or circuit. Some sources use the terms cardiovascular system and vascular system interchangeably with circulatory system. The network of blood vessels are the great vessels of the heart including large elastic arteries, and large veins; other arteries, smaller arterioles, capillaries that join with venules (small veins), and other veins. The circulatory system is closed in vertebrates, which means that the blood never leaves the network of blood vessels. Many invertebrates such as arthropods have an open circulatory system with a heart that pumps a hemolymph which returns via the body cavity rather than via blood vessels. Diploblasts such as sponges and comb jellies lack a circulatory system. Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets; it is circulated around the body carrying oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and collecting and disposing of waste materials. Circulated nutrients include proteins and minerals and other components include hemoglobin, hormones, and gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. These substances provide nourishment, help the immune system to fight diseases, and help maintain homeostasis by stabilizing temperature and natural pH. In vertebrates, the lymphatic system is complementary to the circulatory system. The lymphatic system carries excess plasma (filtered from the circulatory system capillaries as interstitial fluid between cells) away from the body tissues via accessory routes that return excess fluid back to blood circulation as lymph. The lymphatic system is a subsystem that is essential for the functioning of the blood circulatory system; without it the blood would become depleted of fluid. The lymphatic system also works with the immune system. The circulation of lymph takes much longer than that of blood and, unlike the closed (blood) circulatory system, the lymphatic system is an open system. Some sources describe it as a secondary circulatory system. The circulatory system can be affected by many cardiovascular diseases. Cardiologists are medical professionals which specialise in the heart, and cardiothoracic surgeons specialise in operating on the heart and its surrounding areas. Vascular surgeons focus on disorders of the blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels. Yes, high blood sugar, often from excessive sugar intake, can negatively impact blood flow and circulation. This can lead to various health issues, especially for individuals with diabetes. High blood sugar can damage the lining of blood vessels, causing them to narrow and stiffen. This restricts blood flow and makes it harder for blood to reach vital organs and tissues. Reduced circulation to extremities: Reduced blood flow can be particularly noticeable in the hands and feet, potentially leading to pain, numbness, slow-healing wounds, and even nerve damage edema. Increased risk of blood clots: High blood sugar can make blood more likely to clot, increasing the risk of heart attacks and strokes. Cardiovascular problems: Over time, damage to blood vessels from high blood sugar can contribute to heart disease, including coronary artery disease, heart failure, and stroke. Diabetes and blood flow: Diabetes is a major risk factor: Individuals with diabetes are particularly susceptible to these circulatory problems because their bodies have difficulty regulating blood sugar levels. Poor circulation is a common complication: Diabetes-related damage to blood vessels is a significant cause of poor circulation. Proper blood sugar management is crucial: Managing blood sugar levels through diet, medication, and lifestyle changes is essential for preventing and managing these complications. In summary: Consuming excessive sugar can negatively impact blood flow by damaging blood vessels and increasing the risk of cardiovascular problems, even for those without diabetes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dw0WO2XZ5fM
Circulatory System for Kids | Learn all about how blood travels through the body

The corpus callosum is made up of white matter tracts, or nerve fibers, that connect the two cerebral hemispheres of the brain: The corpus callosum is made up of around 200–300 million axons, which are myelinated nerve fibers that send messages. The corpus callosum is divided into four parts: the rostrum, genu, body, and splenium. Each part connects different areas of the cortex. The corpus callosum is located in the white matter of the cerebrum. It's the largest white matter structure in the brain and is about 10 cm long at the midline. The corpus callosum is responsible for allowing us to interpret visual information from both eyes, which is known as stereopsis or binocular vision. The corpus callosum (Latin for "tough body"), also callosal commissure, is a wide, thick nerve tract, consisting of a flat bundle of commissural fibers, beneath the cerebral cortex in the brain. The corpus callosum is only found in placental mammals. It spans part of the longitudinal fissure, connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, enabling communication between them. A number of separate nerve tracts, classed as subregions of the corpus callosum, connect different parts of the hemispheres.

12 Cranial Nerves Cranial nerves are the nerves that emerge directly from the brain (including the brainstem), of which there are conventionally considered twelve pairs. Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the body, primarily to and from regions of the head and neck, including the special senses of vision, taste, smell, and hearing. The cranial nerves emerge from the central nervous system above the level of the first vertebra of the vertebral column. Each cranial nerve is paired and is present on both sides. There are conventionally twelve pairs of cranial nerves, which are described with Roman numerals I–XII. Some considered there to be thirteen pairs of cranial nerves, including the non-paired cranial nerve zero. The numbering of the cranial nerves is based on the order in which they emerge from the brain and brainstem, from front to back. The terminal nerves (0), olfactory nerves (I) and optic nerves (II) emerge from the cerebrum, and the remaining ten pairs arise from the brainstem, which is the lower part of the brain. The cranial nerves are considered components of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), although on a structural level the olfactory (I), optic (II), and trigeminal (V) nerves are more accurately considered part of the central nervous system (CNS). The cranial nerves are in contrast to spinal nerves, which emerge from segments of the spinal cord.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mowm8hPjTNU
12 Cranial Nerves

Cytosine & guanine chemical structure Cytosine (C) C4H5N3O2 and guanine (G) C5H5N5O are complementary bases that pair together in DNA and RNA. They are two of the four main nucleotide bases that make up DNA, along with adenine (A) and thymine (T). Cytosine and guanine pair by forming three hydrogen bonds. The C-G base pairs are slightly stronger than the A-T base pairs. The CG pairs bind more tightly than the AT pairs, so long stretches of CG make stronger helixes than stretches of AT. What Does Cytosine Pair With? In both DNA and RNA, cytosine pairs with guanine (C = G) by forming three hydrogen bonds. Since adenine and thymine only have two hydrogen bonds, C-G base pairs are slightly more strongly attached than A-T or A-U base pairs. Guanine is complementary to cytosine. The genetic code is the way that the four bases are strung together so that the ribosome can read them and turn them into a protein. Guanine is a derivative of purine, consisting of a fused pyrimidine-imidazole ring system we now conclude that it is essential to supplement with Hydrogen peroxide for the Hydrogen and Oxygen nucleic bonds also Activated Charcoal supplements because of the carbon backbone of the nucleobases Guanine is a purine characterized by its double ring structure Cytosine is a pyrimidine characterized by single ring structure cytosine pairs with guanine through 3 hydrogen bonds
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1vm3od_UmFg
The DNA Double Helix Discovery — HHMI BioInteractive Video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_-6JXLYS-k&t=17s
The Structure of DNA