Cardiac muscle, also known as myocardium, is a specialized type of muscle tissue found only in the heart. It's responsible for the heart's pumping action, which circulates blood throughout the body. This muscle is involuntary, meaning it contracts and relaxes without conscious control. Location: Found exclusively in the heart, specifically within the middle layer (myocardium) of the heart wall. Function: Cardiac muscle primary role is to contract and relax rhythmically, generating the force needed to pump blood. Involuntary Control: Cardiac muscle contracts and relaxes without conscious effort, controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Striated: Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is striated, meaning it has a striped appearance under a microscope due to the organized arrangement of contractile proteins. Specialized Cells: Cardiac muscle cells, called cardiomyocytes, are interconnected by specialized structures called intercalated discs. Intercalated Discs: These discs contain desmosomes, which provide strong cell-to-cell adhesion, and gap junctions, which allow for rapid electrical communication between cells. Unique Properties: Cardiac muscle has a high density of mitochondria (the cell's powerhouses), which provide the energy needed for continuous contraction. It also has specialized pacemaker cells that initiate and regulate the heart's rhythm. In essence, cardiac muscle is the essential, tireless workhorse of the heart, ensuring a continuous and efficient blood supply to the entire body.
Car-T cells In biology, chimeric antigen receptors (CARs)—also known as chimeric immunoreceptors, chimeric T cell receptors or artificial T cell receptors—are receptor proteins that have been engineered to give T cells the new ability to target a specific antigen. The receptors are chimeric in that they combine both antigen-binding and T cell activating functions into a single receptor. CAR T cell therapy uses T cells engineered with CARs to treat cancer. T cells are modified to recognize cancer cells and destroy them. The standard approach is to harvest T cells from patients, genetically alter them, then infuse the resulting CAR T cells into patients to attack their tumors. CAR T cells can be derived either autologously from T cells in a patient's own blood or allogeneically from those of a donor. Once isolated, these T cells are genetically engineered to express a specific CAR, using a vector derived from an engineered lentivirus such as HIV (see Lentiviral vector in gene therapy). The CAR programs the T cells to target an antigen present on the tumor cell surface. For safety, CAR T cells are engineered to be specific to an antigen that is expressed on a tumor cell but not on healthy cells. After the modified T cells are infused into a patient, they act as a "living drug" against cancer cells. When they come in contact with their targeted antigen on a cell's surface, T cells bind to it and become activated, then proceed to proliferate and become cytotoxic. CAR T cells destroy cells through several mechanisms, including extensive stimulated cell proliferation, increasing the degree to which they are toxic to other living cells (cytotoxicity), and by causing the increased secretion of factors that can affect other cells such as cytokines, interleukins and growth factors. The surface of CAR T cells can bear either of two types of co-receptors, CD4 and CD8. These two cell types, called CD4+ and CD8+, respectively, have different and interacting cytotoxic effects. Therapies employing a 1-to-1 ratio of the cell types apparently provide synergistic antitumor effects.
It is important to clarify that Thymosin is not a single simple molecule like salt or water; it is a family of proteins (peptides) produced by the thymus gland. Because they are complex chains of amino acids, they have very large molecular formulas. The two most researched forms are Thymosin Alpha-1 and Thymosin Beta-4. 1. Thymosin Alpha-1 (alpha1) This is an immune-modulating peptide consisting of 28 amino acids. It is used in some countries to treat viral infection & support the immune system. Chemical Formula: Molecular Weight: Approximately 3,108 g/mol. 2. Thymosin Beta-4 (C129H215N33O55) This peptide consists of 43 amino acids and is primarily known for its role in cell migration & tissue repair (healing). Chemical Formula: C212H350N56O78S1 Molecular Weight: Approximately 4,963 g/mol.
Thymotaxin is a specific protein (specifically an 11-kDa -microglobulin-like protein) that act as a "chemotactic" agent—meaning it tell immune cells where to move within the body. Because it is a protein made of long chains of amino acids rather than a simple salt or gas, it does not have a "simple" chemical formula like H2O. Instead, its formula is written as a massive chain of Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen & Oxygen. 1. The Chemistry of Thymotaxin Thymotaxin is identified as a chemotactic cytokine. While a universal "textbook" formula for the entire protein is rarely used (because proteins are defined by their amino acid sequence), it is characterized by:Molecular Weight: Approximately 11,000 Daltons (11 kDa). Structure: It is a -microglobulin-related peptide. Function: It is secreted by rat thymic epithelial cells to attract "pre-T" cells from the bone marrow to the thymus so they can mature. As a reminder, the formula for Thymosin Beta-4 is: C212H350N56O78S1
1. Thymopoietin II (Tp2) This is a 49-amino acid polypeptide. It is best known for its role in T-cell differentiation and its effect on neuromuscular transmission. Chemical Formula: C251H412N72O78S1 Molecular Weight: Approximately 5,674.5 g/mol. 2. The "Active Fragment": Thymopentin (Tp5) In medical research &pharmacology, scientists often use a much smaller "active" part of the thymopoietin chain called Thymopentin. It consists of only 5 amino acids (Arg-Lys-Asp-Val-Tyr) but performs many of the same immune functions. Chemical Formula: C30H49N9O9 Molecular Weight: Approximately 679.8 g/mol.
Usage: It has been studied for treating autoimmune diseases and boosting the immune system in patients with certain deficiencies .
There is no single discrete chemical formula for "CD5" because the term refer to different biological & chemical entity depending on context: 1. Biological/Medical: CD5 Glycoprotein In biology, CD5 (Cluster of Differentiation 5) is a type I transmembrane glycoprotein expressed on T cells & a subset of B cells (B-1 cells). Structure: It consist of an extracellular domain with scavenger receptor cysteine-rich (SRCR) region, a transmembrane domain & a large cytoplasmic tail involved in signal transduction. Chemical formula for Cysteine C3H7NO2S: Like all complex biological protein, CD5 does not have a simple chemical formula; it consist of a long amino acid sequence (495 amino acids in humans) heavily modified by carbohydrate groups (N & O linked glycosylation). Gene Symbol: `CD5` (UniProt ID: `P06127`).
2. Isotopic Chemistry: Deuterated Methyl Group / Cyclopentadienyl
In organic chemistry, "CD5" typically appear as part of a larger isotopic formula representing five deuterium atoms (D or 2H): Deuterated Ethyl Group (-C2D5): A fully deuterated ethyl moiety where all five hydrogen atoms are replaced by deuterium (e.g., deuterated ethyl iodide is C2D5I). Deuterated Phenyl / Cyclopentadienyl: In NMR spectroscopy & organometallic chemistry, C6D5- represent a deuterated phenyl ring & C5D5- represents a pentadeuterated cyclopentadienyl ligand.
CD5 (Cluster of Differentiation 5) is a cell-surface glycoprotein. Because it is a protein modified with pentose group (glycans), it is composed of five primary atomic elements:
1. Carbon (C) – Form the structural backbone of all amino acids & attached pentose rings.
2. Hydrogen (H) – Plentiful throughout the organic structure, bonding to carbon, nitrogen & oxygen.
3. Nitrogen (N) – Found in every peptide bond holding the amino acid chain together, as well as in the side chain of amino acids like lysine, arginine & histidine.
4. Oxygen (O) – Present in carbonyl group along the protein backbone, carboxyl terminal, hydroxyl group (serine, threonine, tyrosine) & the extensive N- & O- linked carbohydrate structure attached to the extracellular region.
5. Sulfur (S) – Crucial for maintaining the protein's folded shape. CD5 contain Scavenger Receptor Cysteine-Rich (SRCR) domains, which are heavily stabilized by cysteine disulfide bonds (S–S) alongside sulfur-containing methionine residue . Removing CD5 caused autoimmune disorder in mice .
There is no single chemical formula for CD25, because CD25 is a biological macromolecule—specifically, the alpha chain of the Interleukin-2 receptor (IL-2R\alpha). As a complex transmembrane glycoprotein, CD25 is made of a large, folded chain of amino acids post-translationally decorated with carbohydrate groups, rather than a small-molecule chemical formula. Biological Profile & Identification Gene Symbol: `IL2RA` (UniProt ID: `P01589`). Molecular Weight: Approximately 55 kDa (the precursor polypeptide chain consist of 272 amino acids, which is heavily N- & O- glycosylated on the cell surface). Primary Expression: Highly expressed on regulatory T cells (Treg cells), activated T cells & activated B cells. Biological Function & Structure CD25 form the high-affinity interleukin-2 (IL-2) receptor complex alongside CD122 (IL-2R\beta) CD132 (IL-2R\gamma):
1. Low-Affinity Monomer: By itself, CD25 bind IL-2 with low affinity & lack intracellular signaling domains.
2. High-Affinity Heterotrimer: When CD25 pair with CD122 & CD132, it form a high-affinity receptor that sense low concentration of IL-2, driving T cell proliferation, survival & immune tolerance.
Like all protein, CD25 (the interleukin-2 receptor alpha chain) is built from amino acids & post-translational pentose (glycan) modification. At the elemental level, it is composed of five primary atomic elements:
1. Carbon (C) – Form the foundational organic backbone of the amino acid side chains, peptide bonds & attached carbohydrate group.
2. Hydrogen (H) – Bind to carbon, nitrogen & oxygen atoms throughout the protein matrix.
3. Nitrogen (N) – Present in the amine & amide group that form the peptide bonds connecting amino acids, as well as in basic side chains (such as lysine, arginine & histidine).
4. Oxygen (O) – Found in the carbonyl group along the peptide backbone, hydroxyl group (in serine, threonine & tyrosine), carboxyl group & the attached N- linked & O- linked oligosaccharide chains (glycans).
5. Sulfur (S) – Crucial for CD25's tertiary structure. Sulfur is present in methionine amino acid & cysteine residue, which form intrachain disulfide bonds (S–S) that hold the protein's extracellular domain in their active 3D conformation Regulatory T-cell Treg which make up roughly 10 % of T-cells May the Holy Roman Catholic Church supplement with MSM & place sulfur pellets in your hard water dispenser be blessed by God the Father God the Son & God the Holy Spirit Hallelujah Hallelujah Blessed be the word of the Lord for Christ is risen Hallelujah Hallelujah peace be still in Nomine Patris et FiLii et Spiritus Sancti amen
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTUO0P_Frhs
CAR T Cells: Beating Cancer with the Immune System
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Cancer Discovery Shows We Have "Natural Kill Cell" Already in Our Body, with Dr. Patrick Soon-Shiong
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Introduction to NK Cell Immunotherapy with INKmune - Priming NK Cells
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2025 Nobel Laureate SAKAGUCHI Shimon: The Boundary Between Self and Non-Self - Science View
Chromosomes are threadlike structures made of protein and a single molecule of DNA that serve to carry the genomic information from cell to cell. In plants and animals (including humans), chromosomes reside in the nucleus of cells. There are 16 million atoms in one chromosome ,the current version of the human genome contains almost 20,000 protein-coding genes and about 26,000 non-coding genes. It is widely agreed that there are about 20,000 protein-coding genes. The non-coding genes perform a number of cell functions. A chromosome is a package of DNA with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. In most chromosomes, the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with nucleosome-forming packaging proteins; in eukaryotic cells the most important of these proteins are the histones. These proteins, aided by chaperone proteins, bind to and condense the DNA molecule to maintain its integrity. These chromosomes display a complex three-dimensional structure, which plays a significant role in transcriptional regulation. Chromosomes are normally visible under a light microscope only during the metaphase of cell division (where all chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell in their condensed form). Before this happens, each chromosome is duplicated (S phase), and both copies are joined by a centromere, resulting either in an X-shaped structure (pictured above), if the centromere is located equatorially, or a two-arm structure, if the centromere is located distally. The joined copies are now called sister chromatids. During metaphase, the X-shaped structure is called a metaphase chromosome, which is highly condensed and thus easiest to distinguish and study. In animal cells, chromosomes reach their highest compaction level in anaphase during chromosome segregation. Chromosomal recombination during meiosis and subsequent sexual reproduction play a significant role in genetic diversity. If these structures are manipulated incorrectly, through processes known as chromosomal instability and translocation, the cell may undergo mitotic catastrophe. Usually, this will make the cell initiate apoptosis leading to its own death, but sometimes mutations in the cell hamper this process and thus cause progression of cancer. Some use the term chromosome in a wider sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin in cells, either visible or not under light microscopy. Others use the concept in a narrower sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin during cell division, visible under light microscopy due to high condensation. Chromosomes are distinct structures containing different sets of genes, not copies of each other. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, where one set is inherited from each parent; the two chromosomes in a pair (homologous chromosomes) carry the same genes in the same order, but often have different versions (alleles). Key Differences and Detail Different Structure: Each chromosome (1-22, plus X/Y) is a unique, long DNA molecule containing a unique set of hundreds or thousands of genes. Homologous Pairs: You have two copies of every gene—one from mom, one from dad—located on paired homologous chromosomes. Alleles (Not Identical): While the chromosome pair has the same genes (e.g., eye color), they may have different alleles (e.g., brown allele from mom, blue allele from dad). Exception: Sex chromosomes (X and Y) do not carry the same genes. Sister Chromatids: Before a cell divides, it replicates its chromosomes. These replicated halves, called sister chromatid, are identical copies, but they are attached to each other, not separate chromosomes. Therefore, chromosomes 1 through 22 are unique, and you have two slightly different versions (homologues) of each .
Dr. Mario Capecchi, a Nobel laureate in Physiology or Medicine (2007) widely recognized for pioneering gene targeting & homologous recombination in mammalian cells (knockout mice). In genetic engineering & biotechnology discussion, Capecchi’s foundational work is frequently discussed alongside Artificial Chromosomes —including Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs), Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes (BACs) & Human Artificial Chromosomes (HACs)—as well as his specific proposal regarding their therapeutic use.
1. Capecchi’s Core Contribution: Gene Targeting Mario Capecchi revolutionized genetics by developing methods to insert synthetic or altered DNA sequences into precise location within a cell’s host genome using homologous recombination : Precise Modification : Instead of random insertion (which risks disrupting vital genes or causing insertional mutagenesis), Capecchi showed how cells could be guided to substitute a host gene with an engineered target sequence . Vector Delivery : To deliver large DNA fragments for targeting, researchers utilize artificial chromosome constructs (such as YACs or BACs) capable of carrying massive, intact mammalian genomic regions, including promoters & regulatory elements .
2. Artificial Chromosomes (YACs, BACs & HACs) Artificial chromosomes are synthetic DNA constructs engineered to function like natural chromosomes : Key Component : To act as an autonomous chromosome, an artificial construct require three essential elements :
1. Centromere : Enable proper alignment & separation during cell division .
2. Telomeres : Protect the chromosome end from degradation .
3. Origins of Replication : Allow the cell’s DNA replication machinery to copy the artificial chromosome .
Why Artificial Chromosomes over Viral Vectors ? Viral vectors have severe payload limit (often under 10–15 kb) & integrate randomly into native DNA . Artificial chromosomes—especially Human Artificial Chromosomes (HACs)—exist episomally (separately from the host’s 46 chromosomes as a 47th microchromosome) & can carry megabase-sized constructs without disrupting native host genes .
3. Capecchi on Artificial Chromosomes & Longevity Therapeutic In addition to his Nobel-winning knockout mouse models, Capecchi has discussed the theoretical & practical therapeutic applications of introducing Human Artificial Chromosomes into somatic or germline cells : Multi-Gene Complex Delivery : Many complex genetic disease or biological pathway (such as metabolic networks or tissue repair systems) require multiple genes operating under natural regulatory sequence . An artificial chromosome provide the required packaging capacity . Aging and Cellular Defense : Capecchi has noted that artificial chromosomes could theoretically be used to introduce supplementary protective genes—such as enhanced DNA repair machinery, telomere maintenance systems, or antioxidant defense cascades—into human cells to mitigate age-related cellular damage without interfering with the primary genome May the Holy Roman Catholic Church be blessed by God the Father God the Son & God the Holy Spirit Hallelujah Hallelujah Blessed be the word of the Lord for Christ is risen Hallelujah Hallelujah peace be still in Nomine Patris et FiLii et Spiritus Sancti amen & amen
Chondrocyte While cartilage itself doesn't contain the mineral calcium like bone does, calcium plays a vital role in mineral absorption and development, particularly through the process of endochondral ossification. A chondrocyte is the primary cell type in cartilage, responsible for maintaining the cartilage matrix and producing the structural components of cartilage. They are found within cartilage in areas like intervertebral discs and articular cartilage, playing a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and facilitating joint movements. Chondrocytes also play a role in cartilage repair and are being actively researched for potential applications in reconstructive procedures. Chondrocytes are the sole resident cells of cartilage, a tissue that serves as a template for skeletal development in the embryo. Function: Chondrocytes synthesize and maintain the extracellular matrix (ECM) of cartilage, which is composed of collagen, proteoglycans, and other proteins. Chondrocytes play a crucial role in cartilage homeostasis by balancing ECM production and the production of cartilage-degrading enzymes. Chondrocytes also contribute to the repair of damaged cartilage. Unique Characteristics: Chondrocytes are typically found in a relatively isolated environment, with limited contact with other cells and a lack of direct blood supply. They are adapted to a low-oxygen environment, relying on diffusion from synovial fluid for nutrients. Chondrocyte-based therapies are being explored for cartilage regeneration and repair, particularly in cases of osteoarthritis or other degenerative conditions. Research is ongoing to understand how chondrocytes maintain their phenotype and how they respond to various stimuli. Minerals like zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn) are crucial for chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation, as well as the formation of type II collagen, a key component of cartilage. Elaboration: Endochondral Ossification: Cartilage serve scaffold for bone growth, a process called endochondral ossification, where bone tissue gradually replaces the cartilage. Mineral Roles: Minerals like zinc and manganese are essential for various function within the cartilage, including: Chondrocyte Proliferation and Differentiation: These minerals are involved in cell multiplication and specialization of chondrocytes (cartilage cells). Collagen Synthesis: Minerals play a role in the production of type II collagen, a major structural protein in cartilage. Mineralization: While cartilage doesn't have calcium in its matrix like bone, it does mineralize during the process of bone development minerals like zinc and manganese are important for cartilage development, especially in early stages of chondrogenesis (cartilage formation). Vitamin D also plays a crucial role in bone development, which indirectly affect cartilage development through endochondral ossification. Calcium and Phosphorous: While not directly part of the cartilage matrix like in bone, calcium and phosphorous are still essential for cartilage mineralization and overall bone health. Chondrocyte proliferation, the process where chondrocytes (cartilage cells) multiply through cell division, is a crucial part of cartilage and bone development, particularly during endochondral ossification. This process ensures continuous growth and development of the skeleton, with chondrocytes differentiating into various subtype and then eventually undergoing hypertrophy before being replaced by bone. Importance in Development: Chondrocytes play a key role in forming cartilage templates that serve as the basis for bone development through a process called endochondral ossification. Chondrocytes are responsible for the continuous elongation of epiphyseal growth plates, which are crucial for bone growth in length 2. Proliferation and Differentiation: During development, chondrocytes undergo proliferation, meaning they divide and increase in number proliferation is followed by differentiation, where chondrocytes specialize into different type, such as round, low proliferating chondrocytes (RP chondrocytes) and high proliferating chondrocytes (CP chondrocytes). These CP chondrocytes further differentiate into columnar chondrocytes, which then stop proliferating and become hypertrophic chondrocytes 3. Regulation of Proliferation: Chondrocyte proliferation is tightly regulated by various signaling pathways and growth factors. Growth factors, such as insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and 1,25(OH)2D3, can stimulate chondrocyte proliferation. Signaling pathways, like the Ihh signaling pathway and the PTHrP signaling pathway, also play a role in regulating chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation. Transcription factors, such as SOX9, GLI2/3, and RUNX2, are also involved in regulating chondrocyte-specific gene expression and proliferation 4. Proliferation in Disease: Disruption in chondrocyte proliferation too much sugar can contribute to various skeletal disorders, including those affecting growth plate development. In osteoarthritis, chondrocyte proliferation can be altered, leading to the formation of cell clusters in affected cartilage, according to a study on PMC.
Circulatory System In vertebrates, the circulatory system is a system of organs that includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood which is circulated throughout the body. It includes the cardiovascular system, or vascular system, that consists of the heart and blood vessels (from Greek kardia meaning heart, and Latin vascula meaning vessels). The circulatory system has two divisions, a systemic circulation or circuit, and a pulmonary circulation or circuit. Some sources use the terms cardiovascular system and vascular system interchangeably with circulatory system. The network of blood vessels are the great vessels of the heart including large elastic arteries, and large veins; other arteries, smaller arterioles, capillaries that join with venules (small veins), and other veins. The circulatory system is closed in vertebrates, which means that the blood never leaves the network of blood vessels. Many invertebrates such as arthropods have an open circulatory system with a heart that pumps a hemolymph which returns via the body cavity rather than via blood vessels. Diploblasts such as sponges and comb jellies lack a circulatory system. Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets; it is circulated around the body carrying oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and collecting and disposing of waste materials. Circulated nutrients include proteins and minerals and other components include hemoglobin, hormones, and gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. These substances provide nourishment, help the immune system to fight diseases, and help maintain homeostasis by stabilizing temperature and natural pH. In vertebrates, the lymphatic system is complementary to the circulatory system. The lymphatic system carries excess plasma (filtered from the circulatory system capillaries as interstitial fluid between cells) away from the body tissues via accessory routes that return excess fluid back to blood circulation as lymph. The lymphatic system is a subsystem that is essential for the functioning of the blood circulatory system; without it the blood would become depleted of fluid. The lymphatic system also works with the immune system. The circulation of lymph takes much longer than that of blood and, unlike the closed (blood) circulatory system, the lymphatic system is an open system. Some sources describe it as a secondary circulatory system. The circulatory system can be affected by many cardiovascular diseases. Cardiologists are medical professionals which specialise in the heart, and cardiothoracic surgeons specialise in operating on the heart and its surrounding areas. Vascular surgeons focus on disorders of the blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels. Yes, high blood sugar, often from excessive sugar intake, can negatively impact blood flow and circulation. This can lead to various health issues, especially for individuals with diabetes. High blood sugar can damage the lining of blood vessels, causing them to narrow and stiffen. This restricts blood flow and makes it harder for blood to reach vital organs and tissues. Reduced circulation to extremities: Reduced blood flow can be particularly noticeable in the hands and feet, potentially leading to pain, numbness, slow-healing wounds, and even nerve damage edema. Increased risk of blood clots: High blood sugar can make blood more likely to clot, increasing the risk of heart attacks and strokes. Cardiovascular problems: Over time, damage to blood vessels from high blood sugar can contribute to heart disease, including coronary artery disease, heart failure, and stroke. Diabetes and blood flow: Diabetes is a major risk factor: Individuals with diabetes are particularly susceptible to these circulatory problems because their bodies have difficulty regulating blood sugar levels. Poor circulation is a common complication: Diabetes-related damage to blood vessels is a significant cause of poor circulation. Proper blood sugar management is crucial: Managing blood sugar levels through diet, medication, and lifestyle changes is essential for preventing and managing these complications. In summary: Consuming excessive sugar can negatively impact blood flow by damaging blood vessels and increasing the risk of cardiovascular problems, even for those without diabetes . Every 7 years our skeletal system replenishes itself from minerals & collagen in our bones. Not only does our skeleton allow us to move, but it protects our organs, manufactures blood cells, and regulates minerals to help our entire body function. The blood supply to this system is sometimes overlooked. Bones receive about 10% of cardiac output ?. Compared to cartilage, the blood supply to the bone allow for a higher degree of cellularity, remodeling and repairing ⚒. Blood supply to the long bones comes from these three main sources: Nutrient artery system Metaphyseal-epiphyseal system Periosteal system The nutrient artery system is a high-pressure system that branches from major systemic arteries. It enters through the cortex via the nutrient foramen and then migrates into the medullary canal. There it branches into ascending and descending branches that then further branch out into arterioles and supply the inner 2/3 of bone within the Haversian system. The metaphyseal-epiphyseal arteries arise from the periarticular plexus, that is found around the joint area of a long bone. The periosteal artery system is a low-pressure system that supplies the outer 1/3 of bone and is connected through Haversian and Volkmann canals. These canals are part of the osteon structure of the cortex. As we age, our bones lose their strength. To keep them strong, a variety of minerals is required so drink gastroliths for healthy bones calcium-rich foods . Blood vessels like arteries and veins are primarily composed of three layers, or tunics: the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa. These layers consist of epithelial tissue, smooth muscle, and connective tissue, but their proportions differ depending on the type of vessel. The smallest vessels, capillaries, only have a tunica intima layer to allow for the exchange of nutrients and waste. Tunica intima (innermost layer) The tunica intima, or tunica interna, is the thin, innermost layer lining the lumen (the hollow passageway for blood). Its composition and function vary slightly depending on the vessel type. Endothelium: A single, continuous layer of flattened epithelial cells that provides a smooth, frictionless surface for blood flow. The endothelium also releases chemicals that regulate blood pressure and prevent blood clotting. Subendothelial layer: A thin layer of connective tissue, consisting of collagen and elastic fibers, that supports the endothelium. Internal elastic lamina: A thin, distinct layer of elastic fibers that separates the tunica intima from the tunica media in larger arteries. It provides flexibility and structure. This layer is less prominent or absent in veins. Tunica media (middle layer) This layer is responsible for controlling the vessel's diameter through vasoconstriction (narrowing) and vasodilation (widening), which regulates blood flow and pressure. It is the thickest layer in most arteries. Smooth muscle cells: Layers of smooth muscle fibers arranged in a circular or helical pattern around the vessel. Elastic fibers: Especially abundant in large, "elastic" arteries like the aorta, these fibers allow the vessel to expand and recoil with the pumping of the heart. Collagen: Provides structural support and mechanical strength. External elastic lamina: In larger arteries, this layer of elastic fibers separates the tunica media from the tunica externa. It is generally not found in smaller arteries or veins. Tunica externa (outermost layer) Also known as the tunica adventitia, this layer provides support and anchors the vessel to surrounding tissues. Connective tissue: A sheath of connective tissue, mainly collagenous fibers, that provides strength. This is often the thickest layer in veins. Elastic fibers: Present in varying amounts, contributing to the vessel's flexibility. Nervi vasorum: Tiny nerves that supply the smooth muscle of the vessel wall. Vasa vasorum: In large vessels, small blood vessels within the tunica externa supply the outer layers of the vessel wall with oxygen and nutrients worldwide, an estimated 500,000 people die each year from ruptured brain aneurysms by high carb & sugar intake. In the United States, about 30,000 people experience a brain aneurysm rupture annually, with many cases resulting in permanent neurological damage & death stop drinking sugar .
No, blood vessels are not part of the nervous system. They belong to the circulatory (cardiovascular) system . However, they interact closely with the nervous system. The autonomic nervous system send nerve fibers to the smooth muscle in blood vessel walls to control vasodilation (widening) & vasoconstriction (narrowing), which regulate blood pressure & body temperature. What Blood Vessels Are Made Of With the exception of microscopic capillaries, major blood vessels (arteries & veins) are built from three distinct tissue layers (called tunics) surrounding an open inner space (the lumen):
Layer | Name | Main Components | Primary Function
Inner Layer | Tunica Intima | Endothelium (simple squamous epithelial cells) & thin connective tissue. | Create a slick, frictionless surface for blood flow & release chemical signals.
Subendothelial Layer: Thin loose connective tissue
Internal Elastic Lamina: Perforated sheet of elastic fiber (prominent in arteries). | Basement membrane (Type IV collagen, laminin), proteoglycans, & elastin. | Provide a smooth, non-thrombogenic surface; regulate vascular permeability &release nitric oxide for tone control .
Middle Layer | Tunica Media | Smooth muscle fiber, elastic fiber & collagen. | Contract or relax to adjust vessel diameter to withstand blood pressure
Smooth Muscle .
External Elastic Lamina: Band of elastic tissue separating media from externa. | High concentrations of Type I & III collagen, elastin fibers, and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans. | Contracts (vasoconstriction) or relaxes (vasodilation) to regulate vessel diameter and blood pressure.
Outer Layer | Tunica Externa (Adventitia) | Dense connective tissue (collagen & elastic fibers)| Fibroblasts & Macrophages:Connective tissue cells. Anchor the vessel to nearby tissue to provide structural support.
Key Exception: Capillaries: The smallest blood vessels consist of only a single layer of endothelial cells (tunica intima) resting on a thin basement membrane. This ultra-thin wall allows oxygen, nutrient & waste products to easily diffuse between the blood & body tissue.
Arteries vs. Veins: Arteries have much thicker tunica media layers containing more muscle & elastic fibers to handle high-pressure blood leaving the heart. Veins have thinner walls & often feature one-way internal valves to prevent blood from flowing backward under lower pressure . The wall of blood vessels consists of three concentric layers, each engineered with distinct cellular and extracellular components to manage blood pressure and flow.
Vasa Vasorum: Tiny blood vessels supplying thick vessel walls.
Nervi Vasorum: Autonomic nerve fiber. | Abundant Type I collagen & elastic fiber with ground substance | Anchors the vessel to surrounding tissue to prevent over-expansion under high pressure.
Structural Key Difference: Arteries vs. Veins: Arteries possess a significantly thicker tunica media packed with smooth muscle & elastin to withstand high cardiac pressure. Veins have a much thinner media & a dominant tunica externa made mostly of collagen. Capillaries: Contain only the endothelial cell layer & underlying basement membrane (tunica intima), omitting the media & externa entirely to allow rapid gas & nutrient exchange May the Holy Roman Catholic Church supplement with sulphate by putting sulfur pellets in hard water dispenser , the reason being is Proteoglycans almost always contain sulfate Proteoglycans consist of a core protein covalently attached to long, linear pentose chain called glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). hyaluronic acid, almost all GAGs undergo heavy sulfation in the Golgi apparatus during synthesis. Sulfated GAGs present which blood vessels are made of : Chondroitin sulfate & Dermatan sulfate Heparan sulfate & Heparin Keratan sulfate Role of Sulfate: The attached sulfate groups (SO42) carry strong negative charge. These negative charge attract water molecules & positive ions (like Na), creating a hydrated gel that give the extracellular matrix its shock-absorbing & compression-resistant property. So if you want healthy arteries & veins low blood pressure drink hard water with sulfur pellets inside remember the naked mole rat lives long because it is high in hyaluronic acid which is a sulfur compound sulfur is also present in all cancer and Alzheimer's medicine so be blessed by God the Father God the Son & God the Holy Spirit ⁺‧₊⋆♱⋆₊‧⁺Hallelujah Hallelujah Blessed be the word of the Lord for Christ is risen Hallelujah Hallelujah peace be still in Nomine Patris et FiLii et Spiritus Sancti amen & amen
Developed on Lenovo M800 Windows 10 Shot with Galaxy Ao4S edited with Davinci Resolve & Photoshop
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dw0WO2XZ5fM
Circulatory System for Kids | Learn all about how blood travels through the body
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IMJaAQjv8ik
INTERCOSTAL ARTERY: Blood supply of chest wall
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ufqUOpm8O0
Upper Limb Arteries - Arm and Forearm - 3D Anatomy Tutorial
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lRjF5wI_IqU
Upper Limb Arteries - Hand and Wrist - 3D Anatomy Tutorial
The corpus callosum is made up of white matter tracts, or nerve fibers, that connect the two cerebral hemispheres of the brain: The corpus callosum is made up of around 200–300 million axons, which are myelinated nerve fibers that send messages. The corpus callosum is divided into four parts: the rostrum, genu, body, and splenium. Each part connects different areas of the cortex. The corpus callosum is located in the white matter of the cerebrum. It's the largest white matter structure in the brain and is about 10 cm long at the midline. The corpus callosum is responsible for allowing us to interpret visual information from both eyes, which is known as stereopsis or binocular vision. The corpus callosum (Latin for "tough body"), also callosal commissure, is a wide, thick nerve tract, consisting of a flat bundle of commissural fibers, beneath the cerebral cortex in the brain. The corpus callosum is only found in placental mammals. It spans part of the longitudinal fissure, connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, enabling communication between them. A number of separate nerve tracts, classed as subregions of the corpus callosum, connect different parts of the hemispheres.
12 Cranial Nerves Cranial nerves are the nerves that emerge directly from the brain (including the brainstem), of which there are conventionally considered twelve pairs. Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the body, primarily to and from regions of the head and neck, including the special senses of vision, taste, smell, and hearing. The cranial nerves emerge from the central nervous system above the level of the first vertebra of the vertebral column. Each cranial nerve is paired and is present on both sides. There are conventionally twelve pairs of cranial nerves, which are described with Roman numerals I–XII. Some considered there to be thirteen pairs of cranial nerves, including the non-paired cranial nerve zero. The numbering of the cranial nerves is based on the order in which they emerge from the brain and brainstem, from front to back. The terminal nerves (0), olfactory nerves (I) and optic nerves (II) emerge from the cerebrum, and the remaining ten pairs arise from the brainstem, which is the lower part of the brain. The cranial nerves are considered components of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), although on a structural level the olfactory (I), optic (II), and trigeminal (V) nerves are more accurately considered part of the central nervous system (CNS). The cranial nerves are in contrast to spinal nerves, which emerge from segments of the spinal cord.
The 12 pairs of cranial nerves (CN I through CN XII) emerge directly from the brain and brainstem to manage the sensory and motor functions of your head, neck, and vital organs. They are traditionally numbered using Roman numerals based on their anatomical position from the front of the brain to the back. The 12 Cranial Nerves Number Name Type Primary Function
CN 1 Olfactory Sensory Smell: Carry scent information from the nasal cavity to the brain.
CN 2 Optic Sensory Vision: Transmit visual signals from the retina of the eye to the brain's visual cortex.
CN 3 Oculomotor Motor Eye Movement & Pupil Constriction: Control most of the muscles that move the eyeball, lifts the eyelid, and constrict the pupil.
CN 4 Trochlear Motor Down/Inward Eye Movement: Control a single eye muscle (superior oblique) that allow the eye to look down & inward toward the nose.
CN 5 Trigeminal Both Facial Sensation & Chewing: The largest cranial nerve. It split into three branch to provide sensation to the entire face & drive the muscles used for chewing (mastication).
CN 6 Abducens Motor Outward Eye Movement: Control the lateral rectus muscle, which abduct the eye (moves it outward away from the nose).
CN 7 Facial Both Facial Expression & Taste: Power the muscles that create facial expression, control tear/salivary glands, and carry taste from the front two-thirds of the tongue.
CN 8 Vestibulocochlear Sensory Hearing & Balance: Transmit sound vibration from the inner ear and manage equilibrium (spatial orientation and balance).
CN 9 Glossopharyngeal Both Taste & Swallowing: Manage swallowing muscles, parotid salivary glands, and carry taste from the back one-third of the tongue.
CN 10 Vagus Both Parasympathetic Autonomic Control: The longest cranial nerve, wandering all the way down into the abdomen. It regulate heart rate, digestion, respiration & throat muscles used for speaking.
CN 11 Accessory Motor Neck & Shoulder Movement: Control the trapezius & sternocleidomastoid muscles, allowing you to shrug your shoulders & turn your head.
CN 12 Hypoglossal Motor Tongue Movement: Power the intrinsic & extrinsic muscles of the tongue required for speech, food manipulation & swallowing May the Holy Roman Catholic Church remember cranial nerves are made of collagen so there is a lot of collagen in the brain within the extracellular matrix be blessed by God the Father God the Son & God the Holy Spirit Hallelujah Hallelujah Blessed be the word of the Lord for Christ is risen Hallelujah Hallelujah peace be still in Nomine Patris et FiLii et Spiritus Sancti amen
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mowm8hPjTNU
12 Cranial Nerves
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BKOcqlZnCIM
Cranial Nerves Exam | Clinical Skills
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rwi9f9EGTmw
Cranial Nerve VI: Abducens nerve and Clinical correlations
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SIx0dK0epAo
Blood Supply to the Brain (simple and easy!)
Cytosine & guanine chemical structure Cytosine (C) C4H5N3O2 and guanine (G) C5H5N5O are complementary bases that pair together in DNA and RNA. They are two of the four main nucleotide bases that make up DNA, along with adenine (A) and thymine (T). Adenine and thymine have 16 Hydrogen atoms 10 Carbon atoms 7 Nitrogen and 2 Oxygen atoms all together Cytosine and Guanine have 10 Hydrogen atoms 9 Carbon atoms 8 Nitrogen and 2 Oxygen atoms . Combined the 4 nucleobases have 26 Hydrogen atoms 19 Carbon atoms 15 Nitrogen atoms & 4 Oxygen atoms with Phosphorus atoms on the exterior, Cytosine and guanine pair by forming three hydrogen bonds. The C-G base pairs are slightly stronger than the A-T base pairs. The CG pairs bind more tightly than the AT pairs, so long stretches of CG make stronger helixes than stretches of AT. What Does Cytosine Pair With? In both DNA and RNA, cytosine pairs with guanine (C = G) by forming three hydrogen bonds. Since adenine and thymine only have two hydrogen bonds, C-G base pairs are slightly more strongly attached than A-T or A-U base pairs. Guanine is complementary to cytosine. The genetic code is the way that the four bases are strung together so that the ribosome can read them and turn them into a protein. Guanine is a derivative of purine, consisting of a fused pyrimidine-imidazole ring system we now conclude that it is essential to supplement with Hydrogen peroxide for the Hydrogen and Oxygen nucleic bonds also Activated Charcoal supplements because of the carbon backbone of the nucleobases Guanine is a purine characterized by its double ring structure Cytosine is a pyrimidine characterized by single ring structure cytosine pairs with guanine through 3 hydrogen bonds
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1vm3od_UmFg
The DNA Double Helix Discovery — HHMI BioInteractive Video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_-6JXLYS-k&t=17s
The Structure of DNA