Melanin (from Ancient Greek μέλας (mélas) 'black, dark') is a family of biomolecules organized as oligomers or polymers, which among other functions provide the pigments of many organisms. The chemical formula for melanin, the pigment produced by melanocytes, is C18H10N2O4. Melanin pigments are produced in a specialized group of cells known as melanocytes. There are five basic type of melanin: eumelanin, pheomelanin, neuromelanin, allomelanin and pyomelanin. Melanin is produced through a multistage chemical process known as melanogenesis, where the oxidation of the amino acid tyrosine is followed by polymerization. Pheomelanin is a cysteinated form containing polybenzothiazine portions that are largely responsible for the red or yellow tint given to some skin or hair colors. Neuromelanin is found in the brain. Research has been undertaken to investigate its efficacy in treating neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's. Allomelanin and pyomelanin are two types of nitrogen-free melanin. The phenotypic color variation observed in the epidermis and hair of mammals is primarily determined by the levels of eumelanin and pheomelanin in the examined tissue. In an average human individual, eumelanin is more abundant in tissues requiring photoprotection, such as the epidermis and the retinal pigment epithelium. In healthy subjects, epidermal melanin is correlated with UV exposure, while retinal melanin has been found to correlate with age, with levels diminishing 2.5-fold between the first and ninth decades of life, which has been attributed to oxidative degradation mediated by reactive oxygen species generated via lipofuscin-dependent pathways. In the absence of albinism or hyperpigmentation, the human epidermis contains approximately 74% eumelanin and 26% pheomelanin, largely irrespective of skin tone, with eumelanin content ranging between 71.8–78.9%, and pheomelanin varying between 21.1–28.2%. Total melanin content in the epidermis ranges from around 0 μg/mg in albino epidermal tissue to >10 μg/mg in darker tissue. In the human skin, melanogenesis is initiated by exposure to UV radiation, causing the skin to darken. Eumelanin is an effective absorbent of light; the pigment is able to dissipate over 99.9% of absorbed UV radiation. Because of this property, eumelanin is thought to protect skin cells from UVA and UVB radiation damage, reducing the risk of folate depletion and dermal degradation. Exposure to UV radiation is associated with increased risk of malignant melanoma, a cancer of melanocytes (melanin cells). Studies have shown a lower incidence for skin cancer in individuals with more concentrated melanin, i.e. darker skin tone. Melanin was created by God almighty before the garden of Eden Adam had melanin Adam & Eve were black yet not African even animals have Melanin Melanin (from Ancient Greek μέλας (mélas) 'black, dark') is a family of biomolecules organized as oligomers or polymers, which among other functions provide the pigments of many organisms. Melanin pigments are produced in a specialized group of cells known as melanocytes. There are five basic types of melanin: eumelanin, pheomelanin, neuromelanin, allomelanin and pyomelanin. Eumelanin is produced through a multistage chemical process known as melanogenesis, where the oxidation of the amino acid tyrosine is followed by polymerization. Eumelanin is the most common type. Pheomelanin, which is produced when melanocytes are malfunctioning due to derivation of the gene to its recessive format, is a cysteine-derivative that contains polybenzothiazine portions that are largely responsible for the red or yellow tint given to some skin or hair colors. Neuromelanin is found in the brain. Research has been undertaken to investigate its efficacy in treating neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's. Allomelanin and pyomelanin are two types of nitrogen-free melanin. In the human skin, melanogenesis is initiated by exposure to UV radiation, causing the skin to darken. Eumelanin is an effective absorbent of light; the pigment is able to dissipate over 99.9% of absorbed UV radiation. Because of this property, eumelanin is thought to protect skin cells from UVA and UVB radiation damage, reducing the risk of folate depletion and dermal degradation. Exposure to UV radiation is associated with increased risk of malignant melanoma, a cancer of melanocytes (melanin cells). Studies have shown a lower incidence for skin cancer in individuals with more concentrated melanin, i.e. darker skin tone you should know black Adam & Eve had Albino white kids who populated Europe . Yes, melanocytes are present in the oral epithelium, including the area of the tongue where taste buds are located. These dendritic cells reside in the basal layer of the epithelium and produce melanin, the pigment responsible for dark skin, hair, and eye color. While the function of these melanocytes in the taste bud area is for enhnced taste and neuron signaling, melanocytes contribute to the visible pigmentation of fungiform papillae, the mushroom-shaped structures on the tongue that contain taste buds. Melanocytes are found in the oral mucosa, including the epithelium of the tongue, where taste buds are found. Function: They are melanin-producing cells that contribute to pigmentation and enhanced taste Visible Pigmentation: In some individuals, especially those with darker skin tones, melanocytes can lead to visible brown or black pigmentation on the fungiform papillae, the taste buds' structures. Variations: The degree of pigmentation can vary significantly between different racial and ethnic groups and is considered a normal physiological variation lack of melanocytes in the taste buds mean white individuals don't usually like spicy food whereas black people love marinated food .Melanin in the brain, known as neuromelanin, is a dark, insoluble pigment produced in specific population of neurons in the brainstem. Unlike the melanin in skin, neuromelanin accumulate throughout a person's life, starting after birth. Its primary function protective, though exact roles such as better momory and inhaced creativity. Locations & function of neuromelani Key brain regions Neuromelanin is most prominent in catecholaminergic neurons, which use the neurotransmitters dopamine & norepinephrine. Key areas where it is found include: Substantia nigra pars compacta: This region is rich in dopamine-producing neurons and appears black due to its high concentration of neuromelanin. Locus coeruleus: A brainstem nucleus containing norepinephrine-producing neurons that also contain neuromelanin. Other brain areas: Melanin is also found in the medulla and in glial cells throughout the brain. Proposed function Chelation of metals and toxins: Neuromelanin efficiently binds to and sequesters transition metals like iron excess , as well as other potentially toxic molecules. This is believed to protect neurons from oxidative damage. However, if saturated with high levels of iron, neuromelanin can become a source of oxidative stress instead of a chelator. Antioxidant properties: As a polymer, neuromelanin can scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS), which defend against oxidative stress. Regulation of energy: A unifying theory suggest that melanin in the body, including neuromelanin, may have electron storage and transport capability that provide energy to cells. This energy source may exist in an inverse, yet complementary, relationship with ATP production from mitochondria. Link to Parkinson's disease The loss of neuromelanin-containing neurons is a hallmark feature of Parkinson's disease (PD). Selective vulnerability: Highly pigmented, dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra are particularly vulnerable to degeneration in PD. Inflammatory response: When neuromelanin is released from dying neurons in PD, it activate microglia, the brain's immune cells. This triggers neuroinflammation, which further damages and kills neurons. MRI detection: Advances in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can detect neuromelanin level in the brain. This can be used to monitor disease progression and may potentially help with early detection of PD. Other factor related to neuromelanin Synthesis: Unlike peripheral melanin, which is produced in specialized melanocytes via the tyrosinase enzyme, neuromelanin synthesis is traditionally thought to be non-enzymatic. It is formed from the oxidation of catecholamines like dopamine and norepinephrine in the cytosol of certain neurons. God's creation aspect: Humans possess the largest amounts of neuromelanin compared to other species. Some scientists theorize that this could be a factor in why only humans naturally develop PD. Aging: Neuromelanin generally decreases with age, may accumulate yet lost in neurodegenerative disease like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's in nomine Patris et FiLii et Spiritus Sancti missa orationis peace be still amen
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9aO1yg_J_ZA
Melanin Physiology: Melanin Absoprtion of UV Light and Internal Conversion to Heat
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MwgrgsLXBsQ
How do Melanocytes Make Melanin?: Melanogenesis Mechanism
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFw8mMzH5YA&t=2s
The Biology of Skin Color — HHMI BioInteractive Video
Microbiome A microbiome (from Ancient Greek μικρός (mikrós) 'small', and βίος (bíos) 'life') is the community of microorganisms that can usually be found living together in any given habitat. It was defined more precisely in 1988 by Whipps et al. as "a characteristic microbial community occupying a reasonably well-defined habitat which has distinct physio-chemical properties. The term thus not only refers to the microorganisms involved but also encompasses their theatre of activity". In 2020, an international panel of experts published the outcome of their discussions on the definition of the microbiome. They proposed a definition of the microbiome based on a revival of the "compact, clear, and comprehensive description of the term" as originally provided by Whipps et al., but supplemented with two explanatory paragraphs. The first explanatory paragraph pronounces the dynamic character of the microbiome, and the second explanatory paragraph clearly separates the term microbiota from the term microbiome. The microbiota consists of all living members forming the microbiome. Most microbiome researchers agree bacteria, archaea, fungi, algae, and small protists should be considered as members of the microbiome. The integration of phages, viruses, plasmids, and mobile genetic elements is more controversial. Whipps's "theatre of activity" includes the essential role secondary metabolites play in mediating complex interspecies interactions and ensuring survival in competitive environments. Quorum sensing induced by small molecules allows bacteria to control cooperative activities and adapts their phenotypes to the biotic environment, resulting, e.g., in cell-cell adhesion or biofilm formation. All animals and plants form associations with microorganisms, including protists, bacteria, archaea, fungi, and viruses. In the ocean, animal–microbial relationships were historically explored in single host–symbiont systems. However, new explorations into the diversity of microorganisms associating with diverse marine animal hosts is moving the field into studies that address interactions between the animal host and the multi-member microbiome. The potential for microbiomes to influence the health, physiology, behaviour, and ecology of marine animals could alter current understandings of how marine animals adapt to change. This applies to especially the growing climate-related and anthropogenic-induced changes already impacting the ocean. The plant microbiome plays key roles in plant health and food production and has received significant attention in recent years. Plants live in association with diverse microbial consortia, referred to as the plant microbiota, living both inside (the endosphere) and outside (the episphere) of plant tissues. They play important roles in the ecology and physiology of plants. The core plant microbiome is thought to contain keystone microbial taxa essential for plant health and for the fitness of the plant holobiont. Likewise, the mammalian gut microbiome has emerged as a key regulator of host physiology, and God's symbiotic creation of man & bacteria between host and microbial lineages has played a key role in the adaptation of mammals to their diverse lifestyles. Microbiome research originated in microbiology back in the seventeenth century. The development of new techniques and equipment boosted microbiological research and caused paradigm shifts in understanding health and disease. The development of the first microscopes allowed the discovery of a new, unknown world and led to the identification of microorganisms. Infectious diseases became the earliest focus of interest and research. However, only a small proportion of microorganisms are associated with disease or pathogenicity. The overwhelming majority of microbes are essential for healthy ecosystem functioning and known for beneficial interactions with other microbes and organisms. The concept that microorganisms exist as single cells began to change as it became increasingly obvious that microbes occur within complex assemblages in which species interactions and communication are critical. Discovery of DNA, the development of sequencing technologies, PCR, and cloning techniques enabled the investigation of microbial communities using cultivation-independent approaches. Further paradigm shifts occurred at the beginning of this century and still continue, as new sequencing technologies and accumulated sequence data have highlighted both the ubiquity of microbial communities in association within higher organisms and the critical roles of microbes in human, animal, and plant health. These have revolutionised microbial ecology. The analysis of genomes and metagenomes in a high-throughput manner now provide highly effective methods for researching the functioning of both individual microorganisms as well as whole microbial communities in natural habitats. i take probiotics especially filamentous aquarium bacteria thank you Jesus Christ for all the science research behind the development of probiotics. There is about 2kg of bacteria in the gut as much weight as the brain which goes to show just how important gut bacteria are for instance Kids with autism show altered gut microbiome-brain interactions, study show autistic kids have a less diverse microbiome than normal kids indigenous people also have a more diverse microbiome than rural people . Clostridioides difficile infection is a marker of a disrupted microbiome. With liver disease there is an overgrowth of bad bacteria in the intestines. Junk food for 10 days is enough to reduce your microbiota diversity by 40% . There are more than 100 million bacteria in every drop of saliva an ecosystem of 700 different species. The gut microbiome significantly influence the myelin sheath through the gut-brain axis, impacting both healthy development & neuroinflammatory disease like multiple sclerosis (MS). This interaction involve microbial metabolites, immune system regulation & the integrity of the blood-brain barrier. Role in Myelination Normal Development: The presence of a healthy, diverse gut microbiome during early life is crucial for proper neurodevelopment, including the maturation & formation of the myelin sheath in certain brain regions like the prefrontal cortex. Myelin Plasticity: The microbiome can influence myelin plasticity in the adult brain, which is the nervous system's ability to adapt by changing the amount of myelination in response to new experiences or social stimuli. Microbial Metabolites: Gut bacteria produce metabolites that can cross the blood-brain barrier and directly affect oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs), the cells that produce myelin. Butyrate, a short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) produced by beneficial bacteria, has shown potential in promoting remyelination & restoring proper function in animal models. p-Cresol, a product of protein degradation by certain bad bacteria, can inhibit oligodendrocyte differentiation, potentially impairing myelination. Role in Demyelinating Diseases (e.g., Multiple Sclerosis) Immune System Activation: In conditions like MS, the immune system mistakenly attacks and damages the myelin sheath. The gut microbiome plays a substantial role in activating the specific T cells that infiltrate the central nervous system (CNS) and cause this damage. Gut Dysbiosis: An imbalance in the gut microbiome (dysbiosis) is strongly associated with the pathogenesis of MS and other autoimmune or neurological disorders. Molecular Mimicry: Certain microbial peptides might mimic the molecular structure of the myelin sheath, causing the immune system to launch an autoimmune attack against myelin in genetically susceptible individuals. Therapeutic Potential: Modifying the gut microbiome through diet (high-fiber), prebiotics, probiotics, or fecal transplants is being researched as a potential therapeutic strategy to reduce inflammation, protect existing myelin, and encourage repair. In essence, the ongoing bidirectional communication within the gut-brain axis means that a healthy gut environment is vital for maintaining the integrity and function of the myelin sheath in nomine Patris et FiLii et Spiritus Sancti missa orationis peace be still amen
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8C5x5eyDpwk
WHAT'S THE MICROBIOME? A WORLD FREE OF DISEASES | Full DOCUMENTARY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=er-K8YWIVu0
Lora Hooper (UT Southwestern) 1: Mammalian gut microbiota: Mammals and their symbiotic gut microbes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qm4xyM7a1sU
How Our Microbiomes In Our Bodys Work - The Microbiome - Biology Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w9tNtc6-3Vk
Microbirth (2014) | Microbiome Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XCaTQzjX2rQ
THE HUMAN MICROBIOME: A New Frontier in Health
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GyNwPyGKxQM
The Hidden Power of Microbes: We Are Superhuman! | SLICE SCIENCE | FULL DOC
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qyMbXCzcS0k
Surprise Evidence dysbiosis Gut Microbes Directly Cause Humans to Age
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AG5nK243AKY
A tour around Micropia, the museum of microbes!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZnRwbDWz2ek
Modulating the Gut Microbiome – the Role of Probiotics and Prebiotics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MriTUkLoA9E
Microbiota: The Latest Medical Advances | Documentary - AT
Microglia are a type of neuroglia (glial cell) located throughout the brain and spinal cord. Microglia account for about 10-15% of cells found within the brain. As the resident macrophage cells, they act as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous system (CNS). Microglia originate in the yolk sac under a tightly regulated molecular process. These cells (and other neuroglia including astrocytes) are distributed in large non-overlapping regions throughout the CNS. Microglia are key cells in overall brain maintenance—they are constantly scavenging the CNS for plaques, damaged or unnecessary neurons and synapses, and infectious agents. Since these processes must be efficient to prevent potentially fatal damage, microglia are extremely sensitive to even small pathological changes in the CNS. This sensitivity is achieved in part by the presence of unique potassium channels that respond to even small changes in extracellular potassium. Recent evidence shows that microglia are also key players in the sustainment of normal brain functions under healthy conditions. Microglia also constantly monitor neuronal functions through direct somatic contacts and exert neuroprotective effects when needed. The brain and spinal cord, which make up the CNS, are not usually accessed directly by pathogenic factors in the body's circulation due to a series of endothelial cells known as the blood–brain barrier, or BBB. The BBB prevents most infections from reaching the vulnerable nervous tissue. In the case where infectious agents are directly introduced to the brain or cross the blood–brain barrier, microglial cells must react quickly to decrease inflammation and destroy the infectious agents before they damage the sensitive neural tissue. Due to the lack of antibodies from the rest of the body (few antibodies are small enough to cross the blood–brain barrier), microglia must be able to recognize foreign bodies, swallow them, and act as antigen-presenting cells activating T-cells in nomine Patris et FiLii et Spiritus Sancti missa orationis peace be still amen
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3AqKU5ktBG4
Meet Your Microglia: Your Brain's Overlooked Superheroes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7k5ca2UeLqI
Neuroscience Basics: Neuroglia Functions, Animation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URk_UcBuTaA
Glial Cells (Astrocytes, Microglia, Oligodendrocytes, Schwann Cells, Ependymal Cells)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w2gI-IAokJg
Neurology | Glial Cells: Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Schwann Cells, Ependymal Cells, Microglia
Mitochondria was first described by a German pathologist named Richard Altmann in the year 1890. (singular: mitochondrion) are organelles within eukaryotic cells that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the main energy molecule used by the cell. For this reason, the mitochondrion is sometimes referred to as “the powerhouse of the cell”. Mitochondria are found in all eukaryotes, which are all living things that are not bacteria or archaea. having 16 000 base pair DNA it is thought that mitochondria arose from once free-living bacteria that were incorporated into cells. Mitochondria produce ATP through process of cellular respiration—specifically, aerobic respiration, which requires oxygen. The citric acid cycle, or Krebs cycle, takes place in the mitochondria. This cycle involves the oxidation of pyruvate, which comes from glucose, to form the molecule acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA is in turn oxidized and ATP is produced.
The citric acid cycle reduces nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to NADH. NADH is then used in the process of oxidative phosphorylation, which also takes place in the mitochondria. Electrons from NADH travel through protein complexes that are embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. This set of proteins is called an electron transport chain. Energy from the electron transport chain is then used to transport proteins back across the membrane, which power ATP synthase to form ATP.
The amount of mitochondria in a cell depends on how much energy that cell needs to produce. Muscle cells, for example, have many mitochondria because they need to produce energy to move the body .Each heart muscle cell contains between 5,000 and 8,000 mitochondria. Red blood cells, which carry oxygen to other cells, have none; they do not need to produce energy. Mitochondria are analogous to a furnace or a powerhouse in the cell because, like furnaces and powerhouses, mitochondria produce energy from basic components (in this case, molecules that have been broken down so that they can be used).
Cristae Mitochondria have many other functions as well. They can store calcium, which maintains homeostasis of calcium levels in the cell. They also regulate the cell’s metabolism and have roles in apoptosis (controlled cell death), cell signaling, and thermogenesis (heat production).
Mitochondria have two membranes, an outer membrane and an inner membrane. These membranes are made of phospholipid layers, just like the cell’s outer membrane. The outer membrane covers the surface of the mitochondrion, while the inner membrane is located within and has many folds called cristae. The folds increase surface area of the membrane, which is important because the inner membrane holds the proteins involved in the electron transport chain. It is also where many other chemical reactions take place to carry out the mitochondria’s many functions. An increased surface area creates more space for more reactions to occur, and increases the mitochondria’s output. The space between the outer and inner membranes is called the intermembrane space, and the space inside the inner membrane is called the matrix. The inner mitochondrial membrane is strictly permeable only to oxygen and ATP molecules.
Mitochondrial Matrix The mitochondrial matrix is a viscous fluid that contains a mixture of enzymes and proteins. It also comprises ribosomes, inorganic ions, mitochondrial DNA, nucleotide cofactors, and organic molecules. The enzymes present in the matrix play an important role in the synthesis of ATP molecules. Mitochondria dna is 16569 basepairs double stranded mamalian mitochondria contain 37 genes 13 polypeptides mitovhondria regulate calcium homeostasis apoptosis radical species generation radical species scavenging steroid biosynthesis & metabolism
Mitochondria are different in different cells, the atp molecule is made of oxygen phosphate hydrogen nitrogen Amino radical (chemical formula NH • 2) and methylene. 70kg person = 40kg of atp a day. The classical image of mitochondria in a cell was taken from electron micro-graphs of the liver cells. But they are two dimensional. In the heart, a cardiocyte may have just several mitochondria which are branched and very large. In the brain, small mitochondria are located at the synaptic junctions, but further, in the axon and in the body, they are much larger and metabolically are different. Synaptic mitochondria use lactate for energy production. Lactate is produced by astrocytes from fatty acids, whereas mitochondria in axons and in the body of a neuron consume glucose. So, mitochondria are so different, even in the same cell. Again, it depends on the organ you study. In general, one mitochondria may have thousand of respirasomes consisting from complexes, and each complex has different number of copies, as was indicated by Dr. Galkin. When working with mitochondria you have to be very specific and remember that there are close connections between the functions of organ and mitochondria, and cells, since each organ is constructed from different types of cells. And you have to keep in mind that mitochondria metabolize not just one substrate, but a mixture of substrates different in different organs. There are 600 thousand mitochondria per egg cell and 7 thousand mitochondria in each heart cell Recent experiments have shown that ATP production in mitochondria is interrupted by ten-second bursts called “mitochondrial flashes” (or mitoflashes for short), during which the mitochondria release chemicals called reactive oxygen species. Average lifespan of mitochondria dna is 10-20 days.
There are 7 sirtuins 12567 are found in the nucleus sirtuin 126 found in cytosol sirtuin 3 (Leucine) 4 & 5 found in mitochondria sirtuins replicate mitochondria. Each heart muscle contains 5,000 to 20,000 Mitochondria 20% of the body is mitochondria each neuron can have up to 2 million mitochondria the mitochondrion is a double-membraned, rod-shaped structure found in both plant and animal cell. Its size ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometre in diameter. The most important function of mitochondria is to produce energy through the process of oxidative phosphorylation. It is also involved in the following process: Regulates the metabolic activity of the cell Promotes the growth of new cells and cell multiplication Helps in detoxifying ammonia in the liver cells Plays an important role in apoptosis or programmed cell death Responsible for building certain parts of the blood and various hormones like testosterone and oestrogen Helps in maintaining an adequate concentration of calcium ions within the compartments of the cell It is also involved in various cellular activities like cellular differentiation, cell signalling, cell senescence, controlling the cell cycle and also in cell growth. Mitochondrial diseases: Alpers Disease, Barth Syndrome, Kearns-Sayre syndrome (KSS) supplement with coq10 & astaxanthine there are about 500 000 mitochondria DNA in each ovary egg cell platelets white blood cells each have 5 mitochondria .The mitochondria matrix is an aqueous environment (IE watery) so there is a constant supply of H+ and OH-. hydrogen ion, H+ is strictly, the nucleus of a hydrogen atom separated from its accompanying electron. The hydrogen nucleus is made up of a particle carrying a unit positive electric charge, called a proton. The isolated hydrogen ion, represented by the symbol H+, is therefore customarily used to represent a proton. OH- is Hydroxide a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−. It consists of an oxygen and hydrogen atom held together by a single covalent bond, and carries a negative electric charge. It is an important but usually minor constituent of water. It functions as a base, a ligand, a nucleophile, and a catalyst. The electron transport chain scoops these protons & sends them across the inner mitochondrial membrane to create the proton gradient. Additional protons are also provided by the oxidation of NADH to NAD+ & H+. the bone marrow creates 100 million platelets everyday platelets are the most numerous blood cell in the blood Mitochondria live for about 10 days the growth and division of pre-existing mitochondria for enough mitochondrial population to meet cell energy demands. If mitochondria are "out of the cell," it means they are located outside the cellular membrane, which is not their normal location; this happens when a cell is damaged undergoing programmed cell death (apoptosis), and the mitochondria release components like cytochrome c into the extracellular space, signifying a signal for cell destruction; in most cases, mitochondria cannot survive or function properly outside of a cell due to their dependence on the cellular environment for energy production; however, recent research suggests that under certain conditions, extracellular mitochondria might play a role in cell signaling and immune responses. Mitochondria, utilize several minerals for optimal function, including magnesium, calcium, iron, copper, and zinc, which are essential for energy production and other vital processes. Here's a more detailed look at the roles of these minerals in mitochondrial function: Magnesium: Plays a crucial role in ATP production and is a key facilitator for enzymes involved in energy production, also exhibiting antioxidant properties. Calcium: Has a wide range of function within the mitochondria, including regulating mitochondrial ultrastructure. Iron: essential component in the heme groups of the iron-sulfur clusters, which serve as the catalytic center of the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Copper: Along with its master protein, ceruloplasmin, is instrumental for mitochondrial function, with each mitochondrion needing a significant amount of copper to function properly. Zinc: essential for the mitochondria to produce energy and play a role in the antioxidant defense system. Other Minerals: Manganese, selenium, and potassium also play important roles in mitochondrial function, with manganese assisting antioxidant enzymes, selenium being involved in mitochondrial biogenesis, and potassium being a mitotropic substance. Antioxidants: Vitamin C, Vitamin E, and glutathione are also important antioxidants that help protect mitochondria from damage. Mitochondria, the powerhouses of our cells, are rich in minerals that play crucial roles in their function and overall cellular health. These minerals are essential cofactors for mitochondrial physiology, and understanding their specific functions and how they are regulated within mitochondria is an active area of research. Some minerals have known roles in mitochondrial processes, while others have yet to be fully understood. Zinc important for mitochondrial function, especially in neurons which heavily rely on mitochondria for energy production. Iron facilitates oxygen transport and is involved in DNA synthesis, mitochondrial respiration, and neurotransmitter metabolism. Magnesium a crucial cofactor for numerous enzymes, including those involved in mitochondrial processes. Manganese a component of multiple enzymes and an activator of others, playing a role in various physiological processes, including those within the mitochondria. Copper essential for creating cuproenzymes that help with metabolic reprogramming and preventing chronic diseases. Selenium involved in mitochondrial biogenesis and the function of the electron transfer system. B Vitamins essential for the tricarboxylic acid cycle and other metabolic processes. Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) an antioxidant that supports mitochondrial function and is involved in the electron transfer system. Alpha-Lipoic Acid (ALA) a natural coenzyme in mitochondria, involved in energy metabolism and acts as a powerful antioxidant & constitutes the cell membrane of the Mitochondria . Carnitine important for fatty acid beta-oxidation and transferring long-chain fatty acids into mitochondria. Many Western diets are deficient in essential minerals, which can negatively impact mitochondrial function and overall health. Maintaining proper mineral balance is crucial for optimal mitochondrial function and overall cellular health. Researchers are actively working to understand the specific roles of minerals in mitochondrial function and how they interact with each other. A comprehensive understanding of the mitochondrial metallome (the complete set of minerals) is needed to fully grasp the patterns and relationships of minerals within metabolic processes and cellular development. Future research may reveal that optimizing mineral intake has significant benefits for longevity and overall health. Yes, fasting does lead to the elongation (fusion) of mitochondria, which is a key cellular adaptation to nutrient deprivation. This change in shape help the cell to be more efficient at producing energy & protect the mitochondria from degradation. The Role of Mitochondrial Elongation in Fasting During fasting, the body undergoes metabolic shifts to maintain energy homeostasis, primarily switching from using glucose to burning fatty acids and ketones. This process involves significant remodeling of the mitochondria: Increased Efficiency: Elongated or fused mitochondria have a higher density of cristae (inner membrane folds) and increased activity of ATP synthase, allowing them to produce ATP more efficiently. This ensures a steady supply of energy when nutrients are scarce. Protection from Autophagy: Mitochondria typically exist in a dynamic balance between fission (division) and fusion (elongation). When a cell needs to perform the self-cleaning process of autophagy to recycle damaged components, it often fragments mitochondria to mark them for degradation. Fasting-induced elongation, however, makes the mitochondria less susceptible to this autophagic elimination, preserving the healthy and most efficient organelles. Reduced Oxidative Stress: The enhanced efficiency of the electron transport chain in elongated mitochondria reduce the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), thereby protecting the cell from oxidative damage. The Mechanism The shift to an elongated state is regulated by specific molecular mechanisms during fasting: Decreased Fission: Fasting leads to an increase in cAMP levels and the activation of PKA (Protein Kinase A). PKA then phosphorylates the pro-fission protein DRP1, which prevent it from traveling to the mitochondria and initiating division. Increased Fusion: The reduction in DRP1 activity allow the pro-fusion proteins, such as Mitofusin 1 (MFN1) and Optic Atrophy 1 (OPA1), to drive the process of mitochondrial fusion unopposed, resulting in an interconnected network. In essence, the elongation of mitochondria during fasting is a vital survival mechanism that optimize energy production & quality control to help the organism endure periods of nutrient scarcity , what a marvel fasting has always been . Diets high in saturated fatty acids (SFAs), such as those found in lard and certain oils, are strongly associated with mitochondrial fragmentation (which reduces their size) and cause dysfunction in metabolic tissue. In contrast, unsaturated fats, particularly omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), tend to promote mitochondrial fusion & improve function. Impact of Different Fats on Mitochondrial Size Saturated Fatty Acids (SFAs): Diets rich in SFAs, such as palmitate (C16:0) and stearate (C18:0), induce mitochondrial fission (fragmentation), resulting in a greater number of small, less efficient mitochondria. This process is linked to reduced capacity for burning fat, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, inflammation, and insulin resistance. Unsaturated Fatty Acids (UFAs) and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs): Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), like oleate, tend to protect against the fragmentation and dysfunction caused by SFAs. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs), such as EPA and DHA found in fish oil, generally induce mitochondrial fusion, leading to larger, more connected mitochondrial networks and improved metabolic outcome. Key Mechanisms The changes in mitochondrial size and shape (dynamics) are crucial for their bioenergetics. Fission (fragmentation): The process that creates smaller mitochondria, often associated with the removal of damaged components but, in the context of SFA overload, leads to overall dysfunction and reduced energy expenditure. Fusion: The process where mitochondria merge to form larger, interconnected networks, which is associated with optimal function, improved energy production, and better metabolic health. Overall, the type of fat consumed significantly influence mitochondrial dynamics, with excess saturated fat promoting smaller, less functional mitochondria, while unsaturated fats support a healthy mitochondrial network
in nomine Patris et FiLii et Spiritus Sancti missa orationis peace be still amen
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WEECyKKgNo0
Mitochondria - Jodi Nunnari (UC Davis)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LQmTKxI4Wn4&list=PLltdM60MtzxM6jjoW6mRxYuGzZoSWDYwe
Electron transport chain
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2trKetGBf48
Producing Young Mitochondria Accessible For Everyone - Mitochondrial Transplantation For Longevity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vnw76pfiteQ
Jared Rutter (U. Utah, HHMI) 1: Mitochondria: The Mysterious Cellular Parasite
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kOG9OfA-ZUc
Why Use Molecular Hydrogen (H2)? | Biohacking Your Mitochondria Part 7
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FXDkK-eZeuk
Mitochondria Structure & Function
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GKMdtM0mHXI
Nootropics for PEAK PERFORMANCE: Hack Your MITOCHONDRIA!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D12eku7AqZs
How to Supercharge Your Mitochondria for Energy, Endurance, and Longevity! - A Comprehensive Guide
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c_6kKWZgWOw
Mitochondria In Stunning 3D 4K Animation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zskdEK5qSIc
John Schell (U. Utah): Getting Fuel to the Cell’s Engine: The Importance of Metabolism in Disease
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dEYu6lY0BfA
Mitochondria: Functions, Genomics and Disease
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_L0c2BsmMuo
Critical Concepts in the Nutritional Support of Mitochondria
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pO5Ve6vDk2I&list=LL&index=1
Mitochondria Structure and Function Animation / USMLE Step 1 Physiology
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQM5ZW5bc2I&list=LL&index=1
Mitochondrial Trafficking in Neurons
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vZBvT5brYZI
Scientists Finally Saw How Complex Life Actually Began
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pm_LboN6eZM
Mitochondrial Mutations in Aging - Dr. Aubrey de Grey
Mitosis is a part of the cell cycle in eukaryotic cells in which replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division by mitosis is an equational division which gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is maintained. Mitosis is preceded by the S phase of interphase (during which DNA replication occurs) and is followed by telophase and cytokinesis, which divide the cytoplasm, organelles, and cell membrane of one cell into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. This process ensures that each daughter cell receives an identical set of chromosomes, maintaining genetic stability across cell generations. The different stages of mitosis altogether define the mitotic phase (M phase) of a cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells genetically identical to each other. The process of mitosis is divided into stages corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are preprophase (specific to plant cells), prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During mitosis, the chromosomes, which have already duplicated during interphase, condense and attach to spindle fibers that pull one copy of each chromosome to opposite sides of the cell. The result is two genetically identical daughter nuclei. The rest of the cell may then continue to divide by cytokinesis to produce two daughter cells. The different phases of mitosis can be visualized in real time, using live cell imaging. An error in mitosis can result in the production of three or more daughter cells instead of the normal two. This is called tripolar mitosis and multipolar mitosis, respectively. These errors can be the cause of non-viable embryos that fail to implant. Other errors during mitosis can induce mitotic catastrophe, apoptosis (programmed cell death) or cause mutations. Certain types of cancers can arise from such mutations. Mitosis varies between organisms. For example, animal cells generally undergo an open mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, whereas fungal cells generally undergo a closed mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus. Most animal cells undergo a shape change, known as mitotic cell rounding, to adopt a near spherical morphology at the start of mitosis. Most human cells are produced by mitotic cell division. Important exceptions include the gametes – sperm and egg cells – which are produced by meiosis. Prokaryotes, bacteria and archaea which lack a true nucleus, divide by a different process called binary fission. Numerous descriptions of cell division were made during 18th and 19th centuries, with various degrees of accuracy. In 1835, the German botanist Hugo von Mohl, described cell division in the green algae Cladophora glomerata, stating that multiplication of cells occurs through cell division. In 1838, Matthias Jakob Schleiden affirmed that "formation of new cells in their interior was a general rule for cell multiplication in plants", a view later rejected in favour of Mohl's model, due to contributions of Robert Remak and others. In animal cells, cell division with mitosis was discovered in frog, rabbit, and cat cornea cells in 1873 and described for the first time by the Polish histologist Wacław Mayzel in 1875. Bütschli, Schneider and Fol might have also claimed the discovery of the process presently known as "mitosis". In 1873, the German zoologist Otto Bütschli published data from observations on nematodes. A few years later, he discovered and described mitosis based on those observations. The term "mitosis", coined by Walther Flemming in 1882, is derived from the Greek word μίτος (mitos, "warp thread"). There are some alternative names for the process, e.g., "karyokinesis" (nuclear division), a term introduced by Schleicher in 1878, or "equational division", proposed by August Weismann in 1887. However, the term "mitosis" is also used in a broad sense by some authors to refer to karyokinesis and cytokinesis together. Presently, "equational division" is more commonly used to refer to meiosis II, the part of meiosis most like mitosis
Yes, mitosis happen at an incredibly high rate in the bone marrow. In fact, the bone marrow is one of the most mitotically active tissue in the human body, second only perhaps to the lining of the small intestine. The bone marrow serve as the body’s primary "cell factory," where a single layer of stem cells must divide constantly to replace the billions of blood cells that die every day 1. Hematopoiesis: The Mitotic Engine The process of creating new blood cells is called hematopoiesis. Every day, the bone marrow undergoes enough mitosis to produce approximately: 200 Billion Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) 100 Billion White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) 50 Billion Platelets (Thrombocytes) DNA Assembly & The MRN Complex: Because DNA is being "assembled" millions of times per second in the marrow, the MRN complex is constantly on high alert. If a mistake happen during mitosis, the MRN complex must fix the break immediately, or the cell may become leukemic (cancerous). Ribosomes & Nucleolus: To build all the hemoglobin for new red blood cells, marrow cells have very active nucleoli & millions of ribosomes to maintain a massive rate of protein synthesis. Phosphorus & Nitrogen: The marrow is a huge "consumer" of the phosphorus (for DNA backbones) and nitrogen (for amino acids) Sensitivity to Treatment: Because mitosis is so frequent here, the bone marrow is highly sensitive to drugs like Anktiva (which stimulates immune cell division) or Dexamethasone (which can suppress it) 3. The "Stem Cell" Protection While the progenitor cells (the "middle management" cells) divide rapidly, the "Master" Hematopoietic Stem Cells (HSCs) actually divide very slowly. This is a protection mechanism: by staying in a "quiet" state (quiescence), the master copies of your DNA avoid the risk of DNA assembly error and misfolded protein that come with frequent mitosis. 4. Why Bone Marrow "Fail" in Old Age As we age, the "Methuselah" genes like FOXO3 become less efficient. Replication Stress: After decades of mitosis, the DNA in the bone marrow accumulate damage. IGF-1 Impact: High IGF-1 level can force these stem cells to divide too much, eventually exhausting the "pool" of cells leading to a weakened immune system so make sure to supplement with the 7 Kosher supplements of 769 year old super centenarian Methuselah May the Holy Roman Catholic Church be blessed by God the Father God the Son & God the Holy Spirit Hallelujah Hallelujah Blessed be the word of the Lord for Christ is risen Hallelujah Hallelujah peace be still in Nomine Patris et FiLii et Spiritus Sancti amen
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=koudmJdil60
David O. Morgan (UCSF) Part 1: Controlling the Cell Cycle: Introduction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxHTaTmPlwQ
Seeing Cell Division Like Never Before
MTOR The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), also referred to as the mechanistic target of rapamycin, and sometimes called FK506-binding protein 12-rapamycin-associated protein 1 (FRAP1), is a kinase that in humans is encoded by the MTOR gene. mTOR is a member of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-related kinase family of protein kinases. mTOR links with other proteins and serves as a core component of two distinct protein complexes, mTOR complex 1 and mTOR complex 2, which regulate different cellular processes. In particular, as a core component of both complexes, mTOR functions as a serine/threonine protein kinase that regulates cell growth, cell proliferation, cell motility, cell survival, protein synthesis, autophagy, and transcription. As a core component of mTORC2, mTOR also functions as a tyrosine protein kinase that promotes the activation of insulin receptors and insulin-like growth factor 1 receptors. mTORC2 has also been implicated in the control and maintenance of the actin cytoskeleton. Resveratrol, curcumin, and quercetin reduce Mtor fasting , Curcumin found in turmeric, may have anticancer properties through the blocking of mTOR pathways in tumor cells. When taken with piperine (black pepper) it significantly helps the body decrease inflammation and oxidative stress (one of the triggers that may cause increased mTOR) in nomine Patris et FiLii et Spiritus Sancti missa orationis peace be still amen
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=879LIpkxlh4
Dr. Joan Mannick — mTOR’s Role in Aging
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UeCgGfkpp6g
mTOR in Aging Ep1 - The Role of mTOR | Dr David Sabatini Interview Series
Myelinated axons are primarily composed of myelin, a fatty substance that insulates the axon and increases the speed of nerve impulse transmission. The myelin sheath is made up of lipids (approximately 70-85%) and proteins (approximately 15-30%). This lipid-rich composition allows myelin to act as an insulator, preventing electrical signals from leaking out of the axon. What is Myelin? Lipids: Myelin is rich in lipids, which are crucial for its insulating properties. Key lipid components include cholesterol, sphingolipids, galactocerebroside, and sulfatide. Proteins: While lipids dominate, proteins also play a vital role in myelin structure and function. These proteins include myelin basic protein (MBP), proteolipid protein (PLP), and myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG). Nodes of Ranvier: The myelin sheath is not continuous. It's interrupted by gaps called nodes of Ranvier, which are rich in sodium channels. These nodes are essential for saltatory conduction, the process where action potentials jump from node to node, speeding up nerve impulse transmission. Central vs. Peripheral Nervous System: in the central nervous system, oligodendrocytes produce myelin, while in the peripheral nervous system, Schwann cells are responsible for myelination. White Matter: Myelinated axons are the main component of white matter in the brain, giving it its characteristic white appearance in nomine Patris et FiLii et Spiritus Sancti missa orationis peace be still amen
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_aCCsRCw78g
Introduction: Neuroanatomy Video Lab - Brain Dissections