MiTOSiS

Microbiome A microbiome (from Ancient Greek μικρός (mikrós) 'small', and βίος (bíos) 'life') is the community of microorganisms that can usually be found living together in any given habitat. It was defined more precisely in 1988 by Whipps et al. as "a characteristic microbial community occupying a reasonably well-defined habitat which has distinct physio-chemical properties. The term thus not only refers to the microorganisms involved but also encompasses their theatre of activity". In 2020, an international panel of experts published the outcome of their discussions on the definition of the microbiome. They proposed a definition of the microbiome based on a revival of the "compact, clear, and comprehensive description of the term" as originally provided by Whipps et al., but supplemented with two explanatory paragraphs. The first explanatory paragraph pronounces the dynamic character of the microbiome, and the second explanatory paragraph clearly separates the term microbiota from the term microbiome. The microbiota consists of all living members forming the microbiome. Most microbiome researchers agree bacteria, archaea, fungi, algae, and small protists should be considered as members of the microbiome. The integration of phages, viruses, plasmids, and mobile genetic elements is more controversial. Whipps's "theatre of activity" includes the essential role secondary metabolites play in mediating complex interspecies interactions and ensuring survival in competitive environments. Quorum sensing induced by small molecules allows bacteria to control cooperative activities and adapts their phenotypes to the biotic environment, resulting, e.g., in cell-cell adhesion or biofilm formation. All animals and plants form associations with microorganisms, including protists, bacteria, archaea, fungi, and viruses. In the ocean, animal–microbial relationships were historically explored in single host–symbiont systems. However, new explorations into the diversity of microorganisms associating with diverse marine animal hosts is moving the field into studies that address interactions between the animal host and the multi-member microbiome. The potential for microbiomes to influence the health, physiology, behaviour, and ecology of marine animals could alter current understandings of how marine animals adapt to change. This applies to especially the growing climate-related and anthropogenic-induced changes already impacting the ocean. The plant microbiome plays key roles in plant health and food production and has received significant attention in recent years. Plants live in association with diverse microbial consortia, referred to as the plant microbiota, living both inside (the endosphere) and outside (the episphere) of plant tissues. They play important roles in the ecology and physiology of plants. The core plant microbiome is thought to contain keystone microbial taxa essential for plant health and for the fitness of the plant holobiont. Likewise, the mammalian gut microbiome has emerged as a key regulator of host physiology, and coevolution between host and microbial lineages has played a key role in the adaptation of mammals to their diverse lifestyles. Microbiome research originated in microbiology back in the seventeenth century. The development of new techniques and equipment boosted microbiological research and caused paradigm shifts in understanding health and disease. The development of the first microscopes allowed the discovery of a new, unknown world and led to the identification of microorganisms. Infectious diseases became the earliest focus of interest and research. However, only a small proportion of microorganisms are associated with disease or pathogenicity. The overwhelming majority of microbes are essential for healthy ecosystem functioning and known for beneficial interactions with other microbes and organisms. The concept that microorganisms exist as single cells began to change as it became increasingly obvious that microbes occur within complex assemblages in which species interactions and communication are critical. Discovery of DNA, the development of sequencing technologies, PCR, and cloning techniques enabled the investigation of microbial communities using cultivation-independent approaches. Further paradigm shifts occurred at the beginning of this century and still continue, as new sequencing technologies and accumulated sequence data have highlighted both the ubiquity of microbial communities in association within higher organisms and the critical roles of microbes in human, animal, and plant health. These have revolutionised microbial ecology. The analysis of genomes and metagenomes in a high-throughput manner now provide highly effective methods for researching the functioning of both individual microorganisms as well as whole microbial communities in natural habitats. i take probiotics especially filamentous aquarium bacteria thank you Jesus Christ for all the science research behind the development of probiotics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8C5x5eyDpwk
WHAT'S THE MICROBIOME? A WORLD FREE OF DISEASES | Full DOCUMENTARY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=er-K8YWIVu0
Lora Hooper (UT Southwestern) 1: Mammalian gut microbiota: Mammals and their symbiotic gut microbes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3wUBZ4MRnVQ
The Power of Microbes | ARTE.tv Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qm4xyM7a1sU
How Our Microbiomes In Our Bodys Work - The Microbiome - Biology Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w9tNtc6-3Vk
Microbirth (2014) | Microbiome Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XCaTQzjX2rQ
THE HUMAN MICROBIOME: A New Frontier in Health
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GyNwPyGKxQM
The Hidden Power of Microbes: We Are Superhuman! | SLICE SCIENCE | FULL DOC

Microglia are a type of neuroglia (glial cell) located throughout the brain and spinal cord. Microglia account for about 10-15% of cells found within the brain. As the resident macrophage cells, they act as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous system (CNS). Microglia originate in the yolk sac under a tightly regulated molecular process. These cells (and other neuroglia including astrocytes) are distributed in large non-overlapping regions throughout the CNS. Microglia are key cells in overall brain maintenance—they are constantly scavenging the CNS for plaques, damaged or unnecessary neurons and synapses, and infectious agents. Since these processes must be efficient to prevent potentially fatal damage, microglia are extremely sensitive to even small pathological changes in the CNS. This sensitivity is achieved in part by the presence of unique potassium channels that respond to even small changes in extracellular potassium. Recent evidence shows that microglia are also key players in the sustainment of normal brain functions under healthy conditions. Microglia also constantly monitor neuronal functions through direct somatic contacts and exert neuroprotective effects when needed. The brain and spinal cord, which make up the CNS, are not usually accessed directly by pathogenic factors in the body's circulation due to a series of endothelial cells known as the blood–brain barrier, or BBB. The BBB prevents most infections from reaching the vulnerable nervous tissue. In the case where infectious agents are directly introduced to the brain or cross the blood–brain barrier, microglial cells must react quickly to decrease inflammation and destroy the infectious agents before they damage the sensitive neural tissue. Due to the lack of antibodies from the rest of the body (few antibodies are small enough to cross the blood–brain barrier), microglia must be able to recognize foreign bodies, swallow them, and act as antigen-presenting cells activating T-cells.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3AqKU5ktBG4
Meet Your Microglia: Your Brain's Overlooked Superheroes

Mitochondria was first described by a German pathologist named Richard Altmann in the year 1890. (singular: mitochondrion) are organelles within eukaryotic cells that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the main energy molecule used by the cell. For this reason, the mitochondrion is sometimes referred to as “the powerhouse of the cell”. Mitochondria are found in all eukaryotes, which are all living things that are not bacteria or archaea. having 16 000 base pair DNA it is thought that mitochondria arose from once free-living bacteria that were incorporated into cells. Mitochondria produce ATP through process of cellular respiration—specifically, aerobic respiration, which requires oxygen. The citric acid cycle, or Krebs cycle, takes place in the mitochondria. This cycle involves the oxidation of pyruvate, which comes from glucose, to form the molecule acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA is in turn oxidized and ATP is produced.
The citric acid cycle reduces nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to NADH. NADH is then used in the process of oxidative phosphorylation, which also takes place in the mitochondria. Electrons from NADH travel through protein complexes that are embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. This set of proteins is called an electron transport chain. Energy from the electron transport chain is then used to transport proteins back across the membrane, which power ATP synthase to form ATP. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pO5Ve6vDk2I&list=LL&index=1
Mitochondria Structure and Function Animation / USMLE Step 1 Physiology
The amount of mitochondria in a cell depends on how much energy that cell needs to produce. Muscle cells, for example, have many mitochondria because they need to produce energy to move the body .Each heart muscle cell contains between 5,000 and 8,000 mitochondria. Red blood cells, which carry oxygen to other cells, have none; they do not need to produce energy. Mitochondria are analogous to a furnace or a powerhouse in the cell because, like furnaces and powerhouses, mitochondria produce energy from basic components (in this case, molecules that have been broken down so that they can be used).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQM5ZW5bc2I&list=LL&index=1
Mitochondrial Trafficking in Neurons
Cristae Mitochondria have many other functions as well. They can store calcium, which maintains homeostasis of calcium levels in the cell. They also regulate the cell’s metabolism and have roles in apoptosis (controlled cell death), cell signaling, and thermogenesis (heat production).
Mitochondria have two membranes, an outer membrane and an inner membrane. These membranes are made of phospholipid layers, just like the cell’s outer membrane. The outer membrane covers the surface of the mitochondrion, while the inner membrane is located within and has many folds called cristae. The folds increase surface area of the membrane, which is important because the inner membrane holds the proteins involved in the electron transport chain. It is also where many other chemical reactions take place to carry out the mitochondria’s many functions. An increased surface area creates more space for more reactions to occur, and increases the mitochondria’s output. The space between the outer and inner membranes is called the intermembrane space, and the space inside the inner membrane is called the matrix. The inner mitochondrial membrane is strictly permeable only to oxygen and ATP molecules.
Mitochondrial Matrix The mitochondrial matrix is a viscous fluid that contains a mixture of enzymes and proteins. It also comprises ribosomes, inorganic ions, mitochondrial DNA, nucleotide cofactors, and organic molecules. The enzymes present in the matrix play an important role in the synthesis of ATP molecules. Mitochondria dna is 16569 basepairs double stranded mamalian mitochondria contain 37 genes 13 polypeptides mitovhondria regulate calcium homeostasis apoptosis radical species generation radical species scavenging steroid biosynthesis & metabolism
Mitochondria are different in different cells, the atp molecule is made of oxygen phosphate hydrogen nitrogen Amino radical (chemical formula NH • 2) and methylene.  70kg person = 40kg of atp a day. The classical image of mitochondria in a cell was taken from electron micro-graphs of the liver cells. But they are two dimensional. In the heart, a cardiocyte may have just several mitochondria which are branched and very large. In the brain, small mitochondria are located at the synaptic junctions, but further, in the axon and in the body, they are much larger and metabolically are different. Synaptic mitochondria use lactate for energy production. Lactate is produced by astrocytes from fatty acids, whereas mitochondria in axons and in the body of a neuron consume glucose. So, mitochondria are so different, even in the same cell. Again, it depends on the organ you study. In general, one mitochondria may have thousand of respirasomes consisting from complexes, and each complex has different number of copies, as was indicated by Dr. Galkin. When working with mitochondria you have to be very specific and remember that there are close connections between the functions of organ and mitochondria, and cells, since each organ is constructed from different types of cells. And you have to keep in mind that mitochondria metabolize not just one substrate, but a mixture of substrates different in different organs. There are 600 thousand mitochondria per egg cell and 7 thousand mitochondria in each heart cell Recent experiments have shown that ATP production in mitochondria is interrupted by ten-second bursts called “mitochondrial flashes” (or mitoflashes for short), during which the mitochondria release chemicals called reactive oxygen species. Average lifespan of mitochondria dna is 10-20 days.
There are 7 sirtuins 12567 are found in the nucleus sirtuin 126 found in cytosol sirtuin 3 (Leucine) 4 & 5 found in mitochondria sirtuins replicate mitochondria. Each heart muscle contains 5,000 to 20,000 Mitochondria 20% of the body is mitochondria each neuron can have up to 2 million mitochondria the mitochondrion is a double-membraned, rod-shaped structure found in both plant and animal cell. Its size ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometre in diameter.  The most important function of mitochondria is to produce energy through the process of oxidative phosphorylation. It is also involved in the following process: Regulates the metabolic activity of the cell Promotes the growth of new cells and cell multiplication Helps in detoxifying ammonia in the liver cells Plays an important role in apoptosis or programmed cell death Responsible for building certain parts of the blood and various hormones like testosterone and oestrogen Helps in maintaining an adequate concentration of calcium ions within the compartments of the cell It is also involved in various cellular activities like cellular differentiation, cell signalling, cell senescence, controlling the cell cycle and also in cell growth. Mitochondrial diseases: Alpers Disease, Barth Syndrome, Kearns-Sayre syndrome (KSS) supplement with coq10 & astaxanthine there are about 500 000 mitochondria DNA in each ovary egg cell platelets white blood cells each have 5 mitochondria .The mitochondria matrix is an aqueous environment (IE watery) so there is a constant supply of H+ and OH-.  hydrogen ion, H+ is strictly, the nucleus of a hydrogen atom separated from its accompanying electron. The hydrogen nucleus is made up of a particle carrying a unit positive electric charge, called a proton. The isolated hydrogen ion, represented by the symbol H+, is therefore customarily used to represent a proton. OH- is Hydroxide a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−. It consists of an oxygen and hydrogen atom held together by a single covalent bond, and carries a negative electric charge. It is an important but usually minor constituent of water. It functions as a base, a ligand, a nucleophile, and a catalyst. The electron transport chain scoops these protons & sends them across the inner mitochondrial membrane to create the proton gradient. Additional protons are also provided by the oxidation of NADH to NAD+ & H+. the bone marrow creates 100 million platelets everyday platelets are the most numerous blood cell in the blood Mitochondria live for about 10 days the growth and division of pre-existing mitochondria for enough mitochondrial population to meet cell energy demands. If mitochondria are "out of the cell," it means they are located outside the cellular membrane, which is not their normal location; this happens when a cell is damaged undergoing programmed cell death (apoptosis), and the mitochondria release components like cytochrome c into the extracellular space, signifying a signal for cell destruction; in most cases, mitochondria cannot survive or function properly outside of a cell due to their dependence on the cellular environment for energy production; however, recent research suggests that under certain conditions, extracellular mitochondria might play a role in cell signaling and immune responses. Mitochondria, utilize several minerals for optimal function, including magnesium, calcium, iron, copper, and zinc, which are essential for energy production and other vital processes. Here's a more detailed look at the roles of these minerals in mitochondrial function: Magnesium: Plays a crucial role in ATP production and is a key facilitator for enzymes involved in energy production, also exhibiting antioxidant properties. Calcium: Has a wide range of function within the mitochondria, including regulating mitochondrial ultrastructure. Iron: essential component in the heme groups of the iron-sulfur clusters, which serve as the catalytic center of the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Copper: Along with its master protein, ceruloplasmin, is instrumental for mitochondrial function, with each mitochondrion needing a significant amount of copper to function properly. Zinc: essential for the mitochondria to produce energy and play a role in the antioxidant defense system. Other Minerals: Manganese, selenium, and potassium also play important roles in mitochondrial function, with manganese assisting antioxidant enzymes, selenium being involved in mitochondrial biogenesis, and potassium being a mitotropic substance. Antioxidants: Vitamin C, Vitamin E, and glutathione are also important antioxidants that help protect mitochondria from damage. Mitochondria, the powerhouses of our cells, are rich in minerals that play crucial roles in their function and overall cellular health. These minerals are essential cofactors for mitochondrial physiology, and understanding their specific functions and how they are regulated within mitochondria is an active area of research. Some minerals have known roles in mitochondrial processes, while others have yet to be fully understood. Zinc important for mitochondrial function, especially in neurons which heavily rely on mitochondria for energy production. Iron facilitates oxygen transport and is involved in DNA synthesis, mitochondrial respiration, and neurotransmitter metabolism. Magnesium a crucial cofactor for numerous enzymes, including those involved in mitochondrial processes. Manganese a component of multiple enzymes and an activator of others, playing a role in various physiological processes, including those within the mitochondria. Copper essential for creating cuproenzymes that help with metabolic reprogramming and preventing chronic diseases. Selenium involved in mitochondrial biogenesis and the function of the electron transfer system. B Vitamins essential for the tricarboxylic acid cycle and other metabolic processes. Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) an antioxidant that supports mitochondrial function and is involved in the electron transfer system. Alpha-Lipoic Acid (ALA) a natural coenzyme in mitochondria, involved in energy metabolism and acts as a powerful antioxidant & constitutes the cell membrane of the Mitochondria . Carnitine important for fatty acid beta-oxidation and transferring long-chain fatty acids into mitochondria. Many Western diets are deficient in essential minerals, which can negatively impact mitochondrial function and overall health. Maintaining proper mineral balance is crucial for optimal mitochondrial function and overall cellular health. Researchers are actively working to understand the specific roles of minerals in mitochondrial function and how they interact with each other. A comprehensive understanding of the mitochondrial metallome (the complete set of minerals) is needed to fully grasp the patterns and relationships of minerals within metabolic processes and cellular development. Future research may reveal that optimizing mineral intake has significant benefits for longevity and overall health.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WEECyKKgNo0
Mitochondria - Jodi Nunnari (UC Davis)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LQmTKxI4Wn4&list=PLltdM60MtzxM6jjoW6mRxYuGzZoSWDYwe
Electron transport chain
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2trKetGBf48
Producing Young Mitochondria Accessible For Everyone - Mitochondrial Transplantation For Longevity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vnw76pfiteQ
Jared Rutter (U. Utah, HHMI) 1: Mitochondria: The Mysterious Cellular Parasite
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kOG9OfA-ZUc
Why Use Molecular Hydrogen (H2)? | Biohacking Your Mitochondria Part 7
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FXDkK-eZeuk
Mitochondria Structure & Function
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GKMdtM0mHXI
Nootropics for PEAK PERFORMANCE: Hack Your MITOCHONDRIA!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D12eku7AqZs
How to Supercharge Your Mitochondria for Energy, Endurance, and Longevity! - A Comprehensive Guide
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c_6kKWZgWOw
Mitochondria In Stunning 3D 4K Animation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zskdEK5qSIc
John Schell (U. Utah): Getting Fuel to the Cell’s Engine: The Importance of Metabolism in Disease
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dEYu6lY0BfA
Mitochondria: Functions, Genomics and Disease
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_L0c2BsmMuo
Critical Concepts in the Nutritional Support of Mitochondria

Mitosis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=koudmJdil60
David O. Morgan (UCSF) Part 1: Controlling the Cell Cycle: Introduction

MTOR The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), also referred to as the mechanistic target of rapamycin, and sometimes called FK506-binding protein 12-rapamycin-associated protein 1 (FRAP1), is a kinase that in humans is encoded by the MTOR gene. mTOR is a member of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-related kinase family of protein kinases. mTOR links with other proteins and serves as a core component of two distinct protein complexes, mTOR complex 1 and mTOR complex 2, which regulate different cellular processes. In particular, as a core component of both complexes, mTOR functions as a serine/threonine protein kinase that regulates cell growth, cell proliferation, cell motility, cell survival, protein synthesis, autophagy, and transcription. As a core component of mTORC2, mTOR also functions as a tyrosine protein kinase that promotes the activation of insulin receptors and insulin-like growth factor 1 receptors. mTORC2 has also been implicated in the control and maintenance of the actin cytoskeleton. Resveratrol, curcumin, and quercetin reduce Mtor fasting , Curcumin found in turmeric, may have anticancer properties through the blocking of mTOR pathways in tumor cells. When taken with piperine (black pepper) it significantly helps the body decrease inflammation and oxidative stress (one of the triggers that may cause increased mTOR).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=879LIpkxlh4
Dr. Joan Mannick — mTOR’s Role in Aging
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UeCgGfkpp6g
mTOR in Aging Ep1 - The Role of mTOR | Dr David Sabatini Interview Series